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Stereoscopic 3D

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Stereoscopic 3D (S3D) is a method of giving depth perception that uses the binocular disparity depth cue to produce the illusion of depth. It can be used in still or moving images. It produces an illusion of depth by displaying two slightly different images to the left and right eyes.[1] This ability is based on the characteristics of the human visual system.[2]

Charles Wheatstone described the first stereoscope, which used mirrors, to the Royal Society in 1838.[3] It later supported stereo photography, 3D cinema, 3D television and stereoscopic video games. Binocular head-mounted displays for Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented reality (AR) use the same principle, with a separate image generator and optics for each eye.[1][4] Because a flat screen or a headset's fixed focal plane cannot reproduce the eye's focusing cue, stereoscopic displays create a vergence-accommodation conflict, which research links to visual discomfort and fatigue.[5]

Reviewed 13 October 2026. Checked every date, number, quote and attribution against the cited papers, patents and articles (Wheatstone 1838, Julesz 1960, Sutherland 1968, Heilig patents, Urey 2011, Banks 2012, Hoffman 2008, Shibata 2011, Lambooij 2009, Read and Bohr 2014, 3D TV and console sources), plus links, images and categories. About review dates.

How it works

The eyes, being positioned horizontally in the head, receive two views of the visual scene, one for the left eye and another for the right eye. The views overlap but differ slightly since they originate from two distinct perspectives. The visual system interprets and processes the information gathered from the two images to produce stereoscopic depth, a process called stereopsis.[2][6] Banks and colleagues use "parallax" for the separation of the two images on the screen and "disparity" for the resulting separation on the retinas.[2]

To look at a new object located at a different distance, the point of fixation is altered. The two eyes move at the same time and in opposite directions so that their lines of sight intersect at the new object. When the new object is closer the eyes move inward (convergence); when it is farther away they move outward (divergence). This process is called vergence, and horizontal vergence is triggered by horizontal disparities. At the same time the eye's lens changes focus (accommodation). In natural viewing the eyes accommodate and converge to the same distance, and the two responses are coupled rather than independent.[2]

Wheatstone's 1838 paper argued that the impression of relief in his drawings came from "the simultaneous perception of the two monocular projections, one on each retina", and he deliberately used outline figures without shading or color to rule out other cues.[3] In 1960 Bela Julesz, writing in the Bell System Technical Journal, isolated the binocular cue completely. His computer-generated random-dot stereo pairs "appear completely random" to one eye, but when viewed binocularly "certain correlated point domains are seen in depth", showing that depth can be perceived from binocular disparity alone.[7]

Stereoscopic displays reproduce binocular disparity, but they present every image on one physical surface. They therefore cannot reproduce the varying accommodative demand of real objects at different distances.[2] Banks and colleagues note that the vergence-accommodation conflict is fundamental to all existing stereo cinema and TV systems, and that the remaining pictorial depth cues (shading, blur, perspective, occlusion and others) still interact with stereo depth.[2] Ivan Sutherland made a related point about head-mounted displays in 1968: "Although stereo presentation is important to the three-dimensional illusion, it is less important than the change that takes place in the image when the observer moves his head."[8]

Stereopsis is not unique to humans. It was long thought to be confined to primates and other mammals with front-facing eyes, but it has since been demonstrated in lateral-eyed prey mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates.[6]

History

Stereoscopes and stereo photography

Wheatstone's paper was received and read on 21 June 1838. He proposed that his instrument "be called a Stereoscope, to indicate its property of representing solid figures". It used two plane mirrors, about four inches square, set with their backs at right angles, so that each eye saw the reflection of a different drawing.[3] The Royal Society notes that the device was designed mainly to investigate binocular vision but was sold as drawing-room entertainment, and that Wheatstone asked William Henry Fox Talbot in 1840 to take the first pairs of stereoscopic photographs.[9] According to the Association for Psychological Science, Wheatstone had built the stereoscope as early as 1833 and also designed a refracting version that used prisms.[10]

David Brewster replaced the mirrors with lenses, producing the more compact lenticular stereoscope. The BRANCH timeline of nineteenth-century British history dates the invention to 1849 and says it started a decade-long fad that produced hundreds of thousands of travel slides; the APS history dates its construction to 1848, after Brewster had devised it in theory in 1843.[11][10] A commercial version was produced in Paris by Duboscq in 1850 and shown at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851. Oliver Wendell Holmes designed the hand-held lenticular stereoscope in 1862, a design that stayed popular well into the 20th century.[10]

The View-Master viewer was patented by Wilhelm B. Gruber, who filed his application on 20 January 1939; US patent 2,189,285 was granted on 6 February 1940. The patent describes stereo pairs cut from miniature motion picture film and mounted in a rotating disk with fourteen windows, giving seven views per cycle.[12] The View-Master was first shown at the 1939 New York World's Fair.[10]

Head-mounted stereoscopic displays

The cinematographer Morton Heilig wrote the essay "Cinema of the Future" in 1955, arguing for films that engage the viewer's senses.[13] He filed a patent for a "Stereoscopic-television apparatus for individual use" on 24 May 1957, granted on 4 October 1960 as US 2,955,156. The device, usually called the Telesphere Mask,[14] was a head-worn casing that held two television units, one for each eye, with optics intended to give about 140 degrees of peripheral vision; the patent also describes optional earphones for binaural sound and air nozzles for breezes and scents.[15]

Heilig's Sensorama Simulator (patent filed 10 January 1961, granted 28 August 1962 as US 3,050,870) was a booth in which a viewer sat under a hood and watched stereoscopic film through eyepiece lenses, with stereophonic speakers, a blower, odor-releasing vessels and a vibrating seat triggered by signals on the film.[16] Heilig built his own side-by-side dual-film 35 mm 3D camera to shoot its short films, which included Motorcycle, Belly Dancer, Dune Buggy and I'm a Coca-Cola Bottle.[13]

In 1968 Ivan Sutherland described a computer-driven head-mounted display built at Harvard University. Its optics magnified two miniature cathode ray tubes, one for each eye, to present a virtual image about eighteen inches in front of each eye with a 40 degree field of view. Half-silvered mirrors let the user see the room at the same time, and either a mechanical or an ultrasonic sensor measured head position so that the perspective image could change as the user moved.[8]

3D cinema, television and games

Bwana Devil, released on 26 November 1952, is credited as the first feature-length color 3D film. History.com reports that studios stopped requiring 3D screenings by October 1953 because of "the technical problems and complaints", and quotes Robert Furmanek, founder of the 3-D Film Archive: "By the summer of 1954, 3D movies were pretty much dead."[17] Urey and colleagues attribute the short life of earlier 3D booms mainly to the lack of enabling technologies and content.[1]

After the success of James Cameron's Avatar (2009), stereoscopic 3D was promoted as having advantages in different media such as movies, 3D television and games. The Sony PlayStation 3 and the Nintendo 3DS offered stereoscopic 3D gaming on consoles, while on PC, S3D was available through driver-based solutions such as Nvidia 3D Vision or TriDef.[18] About $62 million (80%) of Avatar's $77 million opening weekend came from 3D theaters, according to a report by the International 3D Society.[19] Broadcasters and console makers followed. ESPN 3D launched in 2010 as one of nine 3D channels that followed Avatar,[20] and Sony updated the PlayStation 3 firmware to play 3D Blu-ray discs and 3D games.[21]

Consumer adoption stayed low. IHS Screen Digest estimated that about 6% of US televisions could display 3D programming in 2012, the year 3D box-office revenue in the US and Canada stayed flat at $1.8 billion. ESPN announced in June 2013 that it would close ESPN 3D by the end of the year, describing its audience as "extremely limited and not growing"; an IHS analyst cited limited programming and the discomfort of wearing glasses for long periods.[20] ESPN had been producing about 140 events a year in 3D.[22] Samsung stopped including 3D in its televisions in 2016, and LG and Sony dropped it from their 2017 ranges; LG cited "a lack of continued consumer demand for 3D". NPD Group figures put 3D sets at 8% of US TV sales dollars in 2016, down from 23% in 2012.[23]

Games followed a similar path. The PlayStation 4 launched without 3D Blu-ray playback; in July 2014 Sony confirmed that firmware update 1.75 would add it.[24] Nintendo announced the Nintendo 2DS on 28 August 2013, a cheaper member of the 3DS family that plays 3DS games but cannot display stereoscopic 3D; it was scheduled to launch in North America on 12 October 2013 at $129.99.[25] Nvidia, which had launched 3D Vision at CES 2009, ended 3D Vision support after its Release 418 drivers in April 2019, saying it was shifting its focus to "newer forms of immersive experiences such as Virtual Reality".[26] Nintendo confirmed in September 2020 that manufacturing of the 3DS family had ended; the line had sold 75.7 million units.[27] Writing for the ACM SIGGRAPH blog, Jon Peddie described the 3DS as the longest-produced and highest-volume S3D device and concluded that "the next wave of hardware would be VR".[28]

Selected events in consumer stereoscopic 3D
Date Event
1838 Wheatstone describes the mirror stereoscope to the Royal Society[3]
1849 Brewster's lenticular stereoscope (1848 in some accounts)[11][10]
1939-1940 View-Master shown at the New York World's Fair; Gruber's patent granted 1940[10][12]
1952 Bwana Devil released[17]
1960 Heilig's head-worn stereoscopic television patent granted[15]
1968 Sutherland's head-mounted three-dimensional display paper[8]
2009 Nvidia 3D Vision launched at CES; Avatar released[26][19]
2010 ESPN 3D launches[20]
2011 Nintendo 3DS launches in North America on 27 March at $249.99[29]
2013 ESPN announces the end of ESPN 3D; Nintendo 2DS announced[20][25]
2016-2017 Samsung, then LG and Sony, drop 3D from new televisions[23]
2019 Nvidia ends 3D Vision driver support[26]
2020 Nintendo 3DS family production ends[27]
2024 Apple Vision Pro launches with access to more than 150 3D movies[30]

Display methods

Figure 1. Active lenses (Image: gamasutra.com)
Figure 2. Passive polarized lenses (Image: gamasutra.com)
Figure 3. Red and blue anaglyph 3D glasses (Image: amazon.com)

3D displays use the same guiding principles as the visual system to exhibit depth: they send slightly different perspectives of the same image to each eye, and the brain uses the differences between them to give the sense of depth.[21] Urey and colleagues group the methods into stereoscopic direct-view displays, which require eyewear and differ by how the two images are multiplexed (color, polarization or time); binocular head-mounted displays; and autostereoscopic displays, which need no eyewear.[1]

Anaglyph 3D is the classic color-multiplexed method. The left and right images are combined with complementary color coding, most commonly red for the left eye and cyan for the right, and viewed through matching color filters. It is inexpensive and works with ordinary color equipment, but loses color information and suffers from crosstalk between the eyes (figure 3).[1] Passive glasses do not require the use of batteries and do not need to be electronically linked to the display mechanism; they use optical filters to selectively sort the right and left images to the correct eye.[21] A related passive method from Infitec uses narrowband interference filters with slightly different spectral bands for each eye.[1]

Polarization 3D gives the two images mutually orthogonal polarization states, and the viewer's glasses block the image intended for the other eye (figure 2). Circular polarization allows more head tilt than linear polarization before crosstalk becomes noticeable. Projection systems need a screen that preserves polarization, and single-projector systems such as RealD's ZScreen switch the polarization in sync with alternating frames. Polarized 3D televisions interleave the two images line by line behind a patterned filter, so each eye receives only half of the horizontal pixel lines.[1][21] Gouraud (2011), writing when RealD and IMAX 3D used the technique in cinemas and Vizio and LG used it in 3D televisions, wrote that "each image is displayed using a property of light called polarization. This allows the passive-polarized glasses to then selectively filter out light between two images using the corresponding polarized films. Therefore, each eyepiece must be polarized in a different direction, allowing separate images to be delivered to each eye. In this manner a 3D effect is achieved."[21]

Active shutter (time-multiplexed) displays show the left and right images alternately at high frame rates, usually 120 Hz, while battery-powered liquid-crystal shutter glasses synchronized with the display block each eye in turn (figure 1).[1] Active shutter was the primary technology used in home entertainment systems. It takes advantage of the high frame rates (120 Hz and above) available in LED and plasma TVs, displaying two high-definition pictures, each at more than 60 Hz, to achieve temporal multiplexing.[21]

Autostereoscopic displays require no glasses. A parallax barrier places vertical apertures separated by black masks in front of the panel so that each eye sees only its own set of pixel columns; a lenticular lens sheet uses cylindrical lenses for the same purpose. Both create repeating viewing zones, both halve (or further divide) the resolution available to each view, and a viewer whose eyes fall in the wrong zones sees a reversed, pseudoscopic image.[1] The Nintendo 3DS uses a parallax barrier on its top screen to show 3D without glasses,[31] and Nintendo's launch announcement described a "3D Depth Slider that lets players select the level of 3D they enjoy the most".[32] In bit-tech's review, a variation of just a few degrees in viewing angle was enough to ruin the 3D effect.[31]

Head-mounted displays provide S3D with two separate image generators and relay optics, one for each eye.[1] Workstation graphics also offered stereo output: the Nvidia Quadro FX 4500, a build-to-order option for the original 2006 Mac Pro, included a stereo 3D port to connect goggles for stereo-in-a-window applications.[33]

Main stereoscopic display methods
Method How the images are separated Eyewear Main limitations
Anaglyph Complementary color filters, usually red and cyan Passive color filters Color loss, crosstalk[1]
Interference filter (Infitec) Narrow spectral bands per eye Passive filters Filters also needed at the projector[1]
Polarization Orthogonal linear or circular polarization Passive polarized glasses Needs polarization-preserving screen; line-interleaved panels share resolution[1]
Active shutter Alternate frames, usually 120 Hz Battery-powered shutter glasses Cost of glasses, extra video bandwidth[1]
Parallax barrier Slits direct pixel columns to each eye None Brightness and resolution loss, fixed viewing zones[1]
Lenticular Cylindrical lenses direct pixel columns to each eye None Resolution loss, viewing zones[1]
Head-mounted display Separate image generator and optics per eye Headset Bulk of optics, field of view, left-right image matching[1]

Applications in VR and AR

VR headsets present a separate, slightly different view to each eye. In the OpenXR standard, the primary stereo view configuration consists of "two views representing the form factor's two primary displays, which map to a left-eye and right-eye view"; view index 0 must be the left eye and view index 1 the right eye.[4] Because every frame must be drawn from two viewpoints, engines provide single-pass methods to reduce the cost. In Unity, multi-pass mode performs a render pass for each eye, while single-pass instanced mode renders the scene in a single pass using instanced draw calls, which "significantly decreases CPU usage and slightly decreases GPU usage compared to the multi-pass mode".[34] See Stereoscopic rendering for rendering techniques.

The design principle of the stereoscope is still used in low-cost VR viewers such as Google Cardboard,[14] which was revealed at Google I/O 2014, where about 6,000 kits were given to developers.[35] The Cardboard SDK draws each half of the phone screen with a separate eye view and projection matrix, and corrects the image for the viewer's lens distortion using parameters read from the viewer's QR code.[36] Stanford researchers described their 2015 light field stereoscope as inspired by Wheatstone's original stereoscope.[37][38]

Headsets also include options for adjusting the lenses, since each person has a different distance between the centers of their pupils. Meta defines lens spacing as "the distance between the clearest spots on the two lenses" and advises matching it to the user's interpupillary distance (IPD); it states that Meta Quest headsets "best accommodate IPDs between 56 and 70 mm, or about 95% of adults".[39]

Stereoscopic video has also become a headset media format. Apple's spatial video, recorded on the iPhone 15 Pro from iOS 17.2, is stereoscopic video with two 1920 x 1080, 30 fps captures stored in one file using Apple's HEVC Stereo Video Profile, an implementation of MV-HEVC.[40] The Apple Vision Pro launched with access to more than 150 3D movies through the Apple TV app and streaming apps including Disney+, provided at no extra cost to users who already had the 2D version.[30]

Visual comfort and user experience

One of the concerns regarding S3D technology is visual comfort, a long-standing problem in stereoscopic research. Tam and colleagues, in a 2011 overview for the IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, called visual comfort one of the most critical topics in 3D-TV research, since some viewers experience discomfort with stereoscopic displays.[41]

Hoffman and colleagues (2008) argued that because displays present images on one surface, focus cues specify the depth of the display rather than the depths in the scene, and that the uncoupling of vergence and accommodation "frequently reduces one's ability to fuse the binocular stimulus and causes discomfort and fatigue for the viewer". Using a display that presented correct or nearly correct focus cues, they found that viewers identified stereoscopic stimuli faster, had better stereoacuity in a time-limited task, perceived less depth distortion, and reported less fatigue and discomfort.[5] Shibata and colleagues (2011) mapped a "zone of comfort" for stereo displays. They found that content in front of the screen was less comfortable at short viewing distances, such as desktop and mobile displays, while content behind the screen was less comfortable at far distances such as cinemas, and that the clinical measures of phoria and the zone of clear single binocular vision predicted individual susceptibility.[42]

Not all discomfort comes from the conflict itself. In a 2009 review, Lambooij and colleagues argued that when screen disparity is kept within about one degree, excessive binocular parallax and accommodation-vergence conflict appear to be of minor importance, and pointed instead to rapidly changing accommodation-vergence demand (such as fast motion in depth), 3D artifacts from insufficient depth information, and unnatural blur.[43] A later review by Terzic and Hansard lists incorrect viewing geometry, vertical disparity, excessive horizontal disparity, rapidly moving objects, crosstalk, unnatural blur, window violations, fast motion in depth and image distortion as content factors most likely to cause discomfort.[44] Disparity can also be adjusted after capture. Lang and colleagues (2010) developed nonlinear disparity mapping operators that remap the depth of stereoscopic video by image warping, for post-production, adapting content to different display sizes, and live broadcast.[45]

The presence and intensity of visual discomfort vary from person to person. In a study by Read and Bohr (2014), 433 viewers aged 4 to 82 watched the same film in 2D or S3D. About 14% reported adverse effects due to S3D, mainly headache and eyestrain, and a control condition suggested that around 8% may report adverse effects caused by the glasses or by negative expectations (a "nocebo effect") rather than by stereo viewing itself. Women were slightly more likely than men to report adverse effects, and the authors found no link with pre-existing eye conditions or low stereoacuity.[46]

In games, a CHI 2012 study of 60 participants, each playing one of three games in stereoscopic or monoscopic form, found that stereoscopy increased experienced immersion, spatial presence and simulator sickness. The effects differed strongly between the three games and between genders, and results on attention and cognitive involvement pointed to "a more natural experience through stereoscopy".[18] The same conflict between vergence and accommodation occurs in HMDs, where, as Koulieris and colleagues put it, "the eyes accommodate to a fixed screen distance while they converge to the simulated distance of the object of interest".[47] Related symptoms are covered under Visual fatigue.

Research

Research on stereoscopic VR and AR displays focuses on adding the focus cues that conventional stereo lacks. Lanman and Luebke (2013) proposed near-eye light field displays using microlens arrays, designed to present "nearly correct convergence, accommodation, binocular disparity, and retinal defocus depth cues" and so address the accommodation-convergence conflict of existing stereoscopic displays.[48] The light field stereoscope of Huang, Chen and Wetzstein (2015) stacked liquid crystal panels to present a light field to each eye, which the authors described as the first wearable VR display supporting high image resolution as well as focus cues.[38] See Near-eye light field display and Light field stereoscope.

Koulieris and colleagues (2017) built a device to measure accommodation inside an HMD and compared depth-of-field rendering, focus-adjustable lenses and monovision. Only the focus-adjustable-lens design drove accommodation to the simulated distance, and it improved comfort significantly more than the other approaches.[47] Meta's Reality Labs Research showed the Butterscotch Varifocal prototype, described in the paper "Retinal-Resolution Varifocal VR", at SIGGRAPH 2023 Emerging Technologies, an eye-tracked mechanically varifocal headset with up to 56 pixels per degree and an accommodation range of 0 to 4 diopters.[49] Reporting on the prototypes, Road to VR noted that there was "no indication when we can expect these technologies to come to consumer headsets".[50]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 Hakan Urey, Kishore V. Chellappan, Erdem Erden, Phil Surman (2011-04). "State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays". Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 99, no. 4, pp. 540-555. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2010.2098351. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Martin S. Banks, Jenny C. A. Read, Robert S. Allison, Simon J. Watt (2012). "Stereoscopy and the Human Visual System". SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal, vol. 121, no. 4, pp. 24-43. https://doi.org/10.5594/j18173. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Charles Wheatstone (1838). "Contributions to the Physiology of Vision. Part the First. On some remarkable, and hitherto unobserved, Phenomena of Binocular Vision". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 128, pp. 371-394. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1838.0019. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Khronos Group. "XrViewConfigurationType". OpenXR 1.1 Reference Pages. https://registry.khronos.org/OpenXR/specs/1.1/man/html/XrViewConfigurationType.html. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 David M. Hoffman, Ahna R. Girshick, Kurt Akeley, Martin S. Banks (2008-03-28). "Vergence-accommodation conflicts hinder visual performance and cause visual fatigue". Journal of Vision, vol. 8, no. 3, article 33. https://doi.org/10.1167/8.3.33. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Vivek Nityananda, Jenny C. A. Read (2017). "Stereopsis in animals: evolution, function and mechanisms". Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 220, no. 14, pp. 2502-2512. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.143883. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  7. ↑ Bela Julesz (1960-09). "Binocular Depth Perception of Computer-Generated Patterns". Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 1125-1162. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1538-7305.1960.tb03954.x. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Ivan E. Sutherland (1968-12). "A head-mounted three dimensional display". Proceedings of the December 9-11, 1968, Fall Joint Computer Conference, Part I (AFIPS '68), pp. 757-764. https://doi.org/10.1145/1476589.1476686. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  9. ↑ Virginia Mills (2018-08-13). "180 years of 3D". Royal Society Blog. The Royal Society. https://royalsociety.org/blog/2018/08/180-years-of-3d/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Nick Joyce, David Baker (2008-11-01). "Stereoscopes: Straddling the Line Between Life and Lab". APS Observer. Association for Psychological Science. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/stereoscopes-straddling-the-line-between-life-and-lab. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Brewster invents lenticular stereoscope". BRANCH: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth-Century History. https://branchcollective.org/?p=3817. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Wilhelm B. Gruber (1940-02-06). "US2189285A - Stereoscopic viewing device". Google Patents. https://patents.google.com/patent/US2189285A/en. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Jon Turi (2014-02-16). "The sights and scents of the Sensorama Simulator". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2014-02-16-morton-heiligs-sensorama-simulator.html. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Virtual Reality Society. "History Of Virtual Reality". Virtual Reality Society. https://www.vrs.org.uk/virtual-reality/history.html. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Morton L. Heilig (1960-10-04). "US2955156A - Stereoscopic-television apparatus for individual use". Google Patents. https://patents.google.com/patent/US2955156A/en. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  16. ↑ Morton L. Heilig (1962-08-28). "US3050870A - Sensorama simulator". Google Patents. https://patents.google.com/patent/US3050870A/en. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Gregory Wakeman (2025-12-22). "Why America Fell in Love With 3D Movies". History.com. A&E Television Networks. https://www.history.com/articles/3d-movies-theaters-tech-timeline-rise-fall. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Jonas Schild, Joseph J. LaViola Jr., Maic Masuch (2012-05). "Understanding User Experience in Stereoscopic 3D Games". Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '12), pp. 89-98. https://doi.org/10.1145/2207676.2207690. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Erik Gruenwedel (2010-03-24). "Group Says 3D Doubles 2D Opening Weekend Box Office Revenue". Home Media Magazine. https://www.homemediamagazine.com/3-d/group-says-3d-doubles-2d-opening-weekend-box-office-revenue-18851. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Peter Svensson (2013-06-12). "3-D TV falls flat: ESPN to kill 3-D broadcasts". Phys.org. Associated Press. https://phys.org/news/2013-06-espn-d-year.html. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Guillaume Gouraud (2011-08-17). "A Developer's Guide To Stereoscopic 3D In Games". Gamasutra. http://web.archive.org/web/20191118061301/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/134827/a_developers_guide_to_.php?print=1. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  22. ↑ Chris Forrester (2013-06-13). "ESPN to close 3D channel". Advanced Television. https://www.advanced-television.com/2013/06/13/espn-to-close-3d-channel/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Jon Bragg (2017-01-25). "3D TV Is No More As LG And Sony Cease Production". ChannelNews. https://www.channelnews.com.au/3d-tv-is-no-more-as-lg-and-sony-cease-production/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  24. ↑ Kevin Dunsmore (2014-07-24). "PS4 Firmware Update 1.75 Adds 3D Blu-Ray Support". Hardcore Gamer. https://hardcoregamer.com/news/ps4-firmware-update-1-75-adds-3d-blu-ray-support/95592/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Danny Bivens (2013-08-28). "Nintendo Unveils New Entry-Level Handheld, the 2DS". Nintendo World Report. https://nintendoworldreport.com/news/35288/nintendo-unveils-new-entry-level-handheld-the-2ds. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Jon Fingas (2019-03-11). "NVIDIA will stop supporting 3D glasses in April". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2019-03-11-nvidia-ends-3d-vision-support.html. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Jake Nelson (2020-09-18). "Nintendo Ends 3DS Production". ChannelNews. https://www.channelnews.com.au/nintendo-ends-3ds-production/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  28. ↑ Jon Peddie (2024-10-10). "Remember Stereo 3D on the PC? Have You Ever Wondered What Happened to It?". ACM SIGGRAPH Blog. https://blog.siggraph.org/?p=18583. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  29. ↑ JC Fletcher (2011-01-19). "3DS in North America: March 27 for $249.99". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2011-01-19-nintendo-3ds-price-release-date.html. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 David Heaney (2024-01-17). "Apple Vision Pro Will Have Access To Over 150 3D Movies At Launch". UploadVR. https://www.uploadvr.com/apple-vision-pro-over-150-3d-movies/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Joe Martin, David Hing (2011-03-24). "Nintendo 3DS Review". bit-tech. https://www.bit-tech.net/reviews/gaming/nintendo-3ds-review/1/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  32. ↑ Nintendo of America (2011-01-19). "Nintendo 3DS Brings a Dimensional Shift to the World of Entertainment on March 27". Nintendo World Report. https://www.nintendoworldreport.com/pr/24780/nintendo-3ds-brings-a-dimensional-shift-to-the-world-of-entertainment-on-march-27. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  33. ↑ Apple (2006-08-07). "Apple Unveils New Mac Pro Featuring Quad 64-bit Xeon Processors". Apple Newsroom. https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2006/08/07Apple-Unveils-New-Mac-Pro-Featuring-Quad-64-bit-Xeon-Processors/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  34. ↑ Unity Technologies. "Introduction to stereo rendering". Unity Manual. https://docs.unity3d.com/Manual/SinglePassStereoRendering.html. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  35. ↑ Ben Lang (2014-07-01). "Google: 'Cardboard is a Placeholder,' 6,000 Kits and 50,000+ App Downloads in First Week". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/google-cardboard-virtual-reality-6000-kits-50000-app-downloads-first-week/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  36. ↑ Google. "Quickstart for Google Cardboard for Android NDK". Google for Developers. https://developers.google.com/cardboard/develop/c/quickstart. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  37. ↑ Stanford Computational Imaging Lab. "The Light Field Stereoscope". Stanford Computational Imaging Lab. https://www.computationalimaging.org/publications/the-light-field-stereoscope/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Fu-Chung Huang, Kevin Chen, Gordon Wetzstein (2015-07-27). "The Light Field Stereoscope: Immersive Computer Graphics via Factored Near-Eye Light Field Displays with Focus Cues". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 34, no. 4 (SIGGRAPH 2015). https://doi.org/10.1145/2766922. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  39. ↑ Meta. "Learn about IPD and lens spacing on Meta Quest". Meta Quest Help Center. https://www.meta.com/help/quest/261777072346131/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  40. ↑ David Heaney (2023-12-11). "iPhone 15 Pro Can Now Record 3D 'Spatial Video' To Watch In Apple Vision Pro". UploadVR. https://www.uploadvr.com/iphone-15-pro-spatial-video-released-vision-pro/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  41. ↑ W. J. Tam, F. Speranza, S. Yano, K. Shimono, H. Ono (2011-06). "Stereoscopic 3D-TV: Visual Comfort". IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 335-346. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBC.2011.2125070. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  42. ↑ Takashi Shibata, Joohwan Kim, David M. Hoffman, Martin S. Banks (2011-07-21). "The zone of comfort: Predicting visual discomfort with stereo displays". Journal of Vision, vol. 11, no. 8, article 11. https://doi.org/10.1167/11.8.11. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  43. ↑ Marc Lambooij, Marten Fortuin, Ingrid Heynderickx, Wijnand IJsselsteijn (2009-05). "Visual Discomfort and Visual Fatigue of Stereoscopic Displays: A Review". Journal of Imaging Science and Technology, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 030201-1-030201-14. https://doi.org/10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2009.53.3.030201. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  44. ↑ Kasim Terzic, Miles Hansard (2017-03-14). "Causes of discomfort in stereoscopic content: a review". arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.04574. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  45. ↑ Manuel Lang, Alexander Hornung, Oliver Wang, Steven Poulakos, Aljoscha Smolic, Markus Gross (2010-07-26). "Nonlinear Disparity Mapping for Stereoscopic 3D". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 29, no. 4 (SIGGRAPH 2010). https://doi.org/10.1145/1778765.1778812. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  46. ↑ Jenny C. A. Read, Iwo Bohr (2014). "User experience while viewing stereoscopic 3D television". Ergonomics, vol. 57, no. 8, pp. 1140-1153. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2014.914581. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 George-Alex Koulieris, Bee Bui, Martin S. Banks, George Drettakis (2017-07-20). "Accommodation and comfort in head-mounted displays". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 36, no. 4 (SIGGRAPH 2017). https://doi.org/10.1145/3072959.3073622. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  48. ↑ Douglas Lanman, David Luebke (2013-11). "Near-eye light field displays". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 32, no. 6 (SIGGRAPH Asia 2013). https://doi.org/10.1145/2508363.2508366. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  49. ↑ Yang Zhao, Dave Lindberg, Bruce Cleary, Olivier Mercier, Ryan Mcclelland, Eric Penner, Yu-Jen Lin, Julia Majors, Douglas Lanman (2023). "Retinal-Resolution Varifocal VR". ACM SIGGRAPH 2023 Emerging Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1145/3588037.3595389. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
  50. ↑ Scott Hayden (2023-08-01). "Meta Reveals New Prototype VR Headsets Focused on Retinal Resolution and Light Field Passthrough". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/meta-prototype-vr-retinal-resoltion-light-field-passthrough/. Retrieved 2026-10-13.
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