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Refractive error

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A refractive error is a vision problem in which the shape of the eye prevents light from focusing correctly on the retina, so that objects at some distances look blurred. The National Eye Institute lists four types: nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia), astigmatism and presbyopia; their causes are an eyeball that has grown too long or too short, an irregularly shaped cornea, and age-related changes in the eye's lens.[1] Refractive errors are usually corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses or surgery that reshapes the cornea.[1] The World Health Organization lists refractive errors and cataracts as the leading causes of vision impairment and blindness worldwide.[2]

Refractive error matters for virtual reality and augmented reality because a head-mounted display presents its image at a fixed optical distance (published figures range from about 1 m to 2.5 m) that a myopic or hyperopic eye may not be able to focus on without correction. Headset makers handle prescriptions in several ways: room for glasses inside the headset, focus dials, interchangeable lenses, and attachable prescription lens inserts. Researchers have also built displays that correct the viewer's refractive error optically or computationally, so that no eyewear is needed.

Reviewed 15 October 2026. Every factual claim, figure and quotation checked against the cited NEI, WHO, AAO, OpenStax, manufacturer support pages, UploadVR and Road to VR articles, and the PubMed/PMC abstracts or full texts of the cited papers. About review dates.

Types

Myopia

Nearsightedness, or myopia, makes far-away objects look blurry.[1] It happens when the eyeball grows too long from front to back, or when the cornea or lens has an irregular shape, so that light focuses in front of the retina.[3] The National Eye Institute (NEI) states that nearsightedness usually starts between ages 6 and 14 and gets worse until the early twenties, and that children who spend more time outdoors are less likely to be nearsighted.[3] In optics, the far point is the distance to the farthest object the eye can see clearly, normally infinity; a nearsighted eye has a closer far point (OpenStax's College Physics works an example with a far point of 30.0 cm), and the correction is a diverging (negative power) spectacle lens.[4]

Hyperopia

Farsightedness, or hyperopia, makes nearby objects look blurry.[1] The eyeball is too short from front to back, or the cornea or lens has an irregular shape, so that light focuses behind the retina rather than on it.[5] The correction is a converging (positive power) spectacle lens.[4]

Astigmatism

Astigmatism can make both far-away and nearby objects look blurry or distorted.[1] It happens when the cornea or lens has a different shape than normal; the NEI notes that the exact cause is not known.[6] The OpenStax physics textbook describes it as "an unevenness or asymmetry in the focus of the eye."[4] Astigmatism of the eye, and astigmatism as an aberration of headset lenses, are covered in more detail in the separate astigmatism article.

Presbyopia

Presbyopia is the gradual loss of the ability to see things clearly up close. The American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) explains that after age 40 the eye's lens becomes more rigid and cannot change shape as easily, and that people may start to notice presbyopia shortly after that age.[7] Corrections include reading glasses, bifocal, trifocal or progressive lenses, and monovision or multifocal contact lenses.[7] Padmanaban, Konrad and Wetzstein describe presbyopia as the gradual loss of the ability to accommodate, or refocus, to near distances because the crystalline lens stiffens, and state that it affects nearly 20% of people worldwide.[8]

Summary

Type What looks blurred Optical cause Usual spectacle correction
Myopia (nearsightedness) Far-away objects Eyeball too long, or cornea or lens shape; light focuses in front of the retina[3] Diverging (minus) lens[4]
Hyperopia (farsightedness) Nearby objects Eyeball too short, or cornea or lens shape; light focuses behind the retina[5] Converging (plus) lens[4]
Astigmatism Far and near objects, blurred or distorted Cornea or lens with a different shape than normal[6] Cylinder (CYL) power at a stated axis[9]
Presbyopia Close-up objects, usually from about age 40 Lens becomes more rigid with age[7] Reading glasses, bifocals, trifocals or progressives[7]

Prescriptions and measurement

Corrective lens power is given in diopters, with negative values for diverging lenses and positive values for converging lenses.[4] In an eyeglasses prescription, the sphere (SPH) is the lens power needed to correct vision, a minus sign means nearsightedness and a plus sign farsightedness, the cylinder (CYL) is the amount of astigmatism, the axis (1 to 180 degrees) gives its orientation, and "Add" holds any additional power, such as for reading.[9] Epidemiological studies set thresholds on this scale: the global myopia analysis by Holden and colleagues defined myopia as -0.50 D or less and high myopia as -5.00 D or less.[10]

Prevalence

The WHO estimates that at least 2.2 billion people have a near or distance vision impairment. In at least 1 billion of them the impairment could have been prevented or has yet to be addressed; this group includes 88.4 million people with distance vision impairment or blindness from refractive error, and 826 million with near vision impairment from presbyopia.[2] The WHO also states that two out of three people in low-income countries who need eyeglasses do not have access to them.[2]

Measure Estimate Source
People with myopia, 2000 1,406 million (22.9% of the world population) Holden et al. 2016[10]
People with high myopia, 2000 163 million (2.7%) Holden et al. 2016[10]
Projected people with myopia, 2050 4,758 million (49.8%) Holden et al. 2016[10]
Projected people with high myopia, 2050 938 million (9.8%) Holden et al. 2016[10]
People with presbyopia, 2015 1.8 billion (25%), of whom 826 million had near vision impairment from no or inadequate correction Fricke et al. 2018[11]
Americans with a refractive error More than 150 million NEI[1]
US adults who wear prescription glasses 63.7% (75.6% including contact lenses and other correction) The Vision Council, as cited by Meta[12]

Refractive error in headsets

Fixed focal distance

Most headsets form a virtual image of the display at one fixed optical distance, so the eye must accommodate to that distance to see a sharp image.[13][14] Sony states that the focal distance of the PlayStation VR2 is approximately 2 m.[15] Microsoft states that HoloLens displays are fixed at an optical distance of approximately 2.0 m, and that the focal distances of Windows Mixed Reality immersive headsets are generally between 1.25 m and 2.5 m.[13] In a 2017 study using the Oculus Rift DK2, Turnbull and Phillips describe the headset's lenses as "relatively high powered (approximately 25D)" and report that light from the headset focused at approximately 1 m.[14]

Because of this fixed focus, Padmanaban and colleagues wrote in 2017 that conventional near-eye displays "cannot support users with uncorrected refractive errors."[16] HTC notes that glasses might not be necessary for some nearsighted users, especially those without astigmatism, because "the lenses in many headsets focus the image as if it's at a distance."[17] The fixed focus also causes the vergence-accommodation conflict: users accommodate to the display's focal distance to keep the image sharp but converge on the depth of the virtual object.[13]

Correction methods

Method How it works Examples Limits
Glasses worn inside the headset The headset leaves space for spectacle frames Sony says users can keep their glasses on with PS VR2.[15] For the Meta Quest 3 and Meta Quest 3S, Meta lists maximum frame dimensions of 142 mm wide and 50 mm tall and includes a glasses spacer with the headset.[18] Microsoft says the HoloLens 2 visor can be tilted to accommodate eyewear.[19] Frame size; Apple states that "You can't wear Apple Vision Pro while wearing eyeglasses."[20]
Contact lenses Correction is worn on the eye Apple says users of single-vision soft contact lenses can use Apple Vision Pro without prescription inserts.[20] Apple says hard lenses might affect the experience, particularly eye tracking, and that cosmetic lenses are not compatible.[20]
Interchangeable lens sets Swappable headset lenses with different focus The Oculus Rift DK1 came with three pairs of lens cups (A, B and C), with C intended for very nearsighted users;[21] the Oculus Rift DK2 shipped with two sets, "normal and nearsighted".[22] A small number of fixed steps
Diopter (focus) dials Per-eye adjustment of image focus HTC states that the HTC Vive XR Elite has sliding diopter dials that adjust focus up to approximately -6.0 diopters per eye, and that the HTC Vive Flow has individual diopter adjustments on each lens.[17] Rokid states that the Rokid Max can be adjusted from 0.00D to -6.00D for nearsighted users.[23] These published ranges cover myopia only. HTC says the dials help with nearsightedness "but do not correct astigmatism."[17]
Prescription lens inserts Custom corrective lenses that attach over the headset lenses Apple sells ZEISS Optical Inserts in a Readers version for near-only correction and a Prescription version, which Apple says also suits customers who normally use progressive or bifocal lenses.[20] Meta offers inserts as one option alongside glasses and contact lenses.[12] Require a valid, unexpired prescription; ZEISS does not accept prescriptions with prism values, although Apple's Digital Prism Correction setting in visionOS 26 and later supports prism prescriptions up to 7.75 prism diopters, though Apple notes that not all prism prescriptions are supported.[20]

Presbyopia and headsets

Apple's ZEISS Readers inserts for Vision Pro are aimed at people who need only near correction, in three strength ranges; Apple suggests that people whose readers are stronger than +2.75D try the +2.00 to +2.75D inserts or consult an eye-care professional.[20] In their 2019 paper on presbyopia correction, Padmanaban, Konrad and Wetzstein describe the vergence-accommodation conflict in VR as a condition that, "at its root, is caused by a fixed-focus distance, much like presbyopia", and note that focus-tunable lenses have been proposed as a potential solution to the conflict; their own study evaluates such lenses as a presbyopia correction.[8]

Augmented reality glasses

Optical see-through AR glasses add a second problem: the wearer needs a sharp view of the real world as well as of the virtual image. A focus dial that moves the virtual image does not help with the first. Rokid states that the myopia correction on the Rokid Max "applies only to the content displayed via the lenses", so the real environment does not become clearer, and it directs users whose myopia exceeds the dial range to a prescription mount for add-on lenses.[23]

On glasses with a waveguide, the prescription may have to be built into the display lens. UploadVR reported in October 2025 that Meta supports nearsightedness, farsightedness and astigmatism on the Meta Ray-Ban Display up to a total power of -4 to +4D and up to 4D of cylinder; because the right lens contains the waveguide, prescription support is bonded to the lens during manufacturing and has to be ordered at the time of purchase, with no aftermarket option.[24]

Research

Adaptive focus and prescription correction in displays

Padmanaban, Konrad, Stramer, Cooper and Wetzstein (Stanford University and Dartmouth College) built two prototype near-eye displays that used focus-tunable lenses, mechanically actuated displays and gaze tracking. They report that such displays "can be tailored to correct common refractive errors" while also providing focus cues that follow where the user looks, and suggest that some users "may experience better quality vision in the virtual world than in the real one."[16] This line of work overlaps with varifocal display and gaze-contingent display research.

For AR, Chakravarthula, Dunn, Akşit and Fuchs described FocusAR in 2018, a system that pairs a tunable-focus lens for dynamic prescription correction of the real world with a varifocal internal display for the virtual imagery. Its stated aim was to replace the user's prescription eyeglasses entirely, with users over 40 who have a limited accommodation range named as a key group.[25] The 2019 "autofocals" study applied the same idea to everyday eyewear for presbyopes, driving focus-tunable lenses from an eye tracker and a depth sensor. In tests with 19 users, autofocals gave better visual acuity than monovision and progressive lenses with similar contrast sensitivity, and in a separate study 23 of 37 users ranked them best for ease of refocusing.[8]

Vision-correcting rendering

Another approach changes the image rather than the optics. Huang, Wetzstein, Barsky and Raskar presented an "eyeglasses-free" computational light field display at SIGGRAPH 2014 that predistorts content so that a viewer with a given aberration sees it sharply, including higher-order aberrations that are difficult to correct with glasses; they evaluated it in simulation and with a low-cost prototype.[26] In 2023, Güzel, Beyazian, Chakravarthula and Akşit proposed ChromaCorrect, a prescription-aware rendering method for VR headsets based on a differentiable model of the display and of the viewer's visual perception, including user-specific refractive errors. Citing earlier work, they note that myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism affect at least 23.9%, 8.4% and 33% of the population respectively, and that wearing glasses under a VR headset is uncomfortable. They evaluated the method with a camera photographing the display through defocusing lenses that mimic refractive errors.[27]

Headsets for measuring refractive error

Several groups have used VR hardware to measure refraction. Pujol and colleagues validated a virtual reality based system for spherical subjective refraction on 104 eyes of 52 subjects; the mean difference in spherical equivalent from classical subjective refraction was -0.034 D (standard deviation 0.454 D).[28] Goyal, Bopardikar and Tiwari added a plain mirror to a commercial VR headset to project test symbols on programmable focal planes and estimate spherical refractive error (IEEE EMBC 2018).[29] A 2024 study at Chung Shan Medical University compared a light field VR system with autorefractors, retinoscopy and subjective refraction in 50 participants and reported intraclass correlation coefficients for spherical equivalent of 82.7% to 86.7%.[30]

VR use and myopia

Turnbull and Phillips tested whether a VR headset might be a stimulus for myopia, since microscope use and near work have been linked to myopia. Nineteen adults aged 18 to 35 (nine emmetropic, ten wearing their usual contact lenses) spent 40 minutes in each of four real and virtual environments. Binocular posture, gaze stability, amplitude of accommodation and stereopsis did not differ between conditions, while the choroid thickened by about 10 microns after each VR session; the authors concluded that a VR headset "may not be a myopiagenic stimulus".[14]

Clinical trials in China have tested VR-based visual training as a way to slow myopia progression in children. In a trial at Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital with 65 low-myopic children aged 8 to 13, axial length grew by 0.063 mm over three months in the group that used VR training for 20 minutes a day, against 0.129 mm in the control group wearing single-vision spectacles only.[31] A randomized trial in Guangzhou published in JAMA Ophthalmology in August 2026 gave 120 children aged 6 to 12 either "digital defocus vision training" on a head-mounted VR device for 15 minutes a day plus single-vision spectacles, or spectacles alone. At six months, axial length had increased by 0.15 mm in the VR group and 0.25 mm in the spectacles group; the authors called the reduction small and stated that its short- and long-term clinical relevance cannot be determined from the trial.[32]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 "Refractive Errors". National Eye Institute. National Institutes of Health. 2025-12-19. https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/refractive-errors. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "Blindness and vision impairment". World Health Organization fact sheets. World Health Organization. 2026-02-10. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/blindness-and-visual-impairment. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Nearsightedness (Myopia)". National Eye Institute. National Institutes of Health. https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/nearsightedness-myopia. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Paul Peter Urone, Roger Hinrichs (2022-07-13). "26.2 Vision Correction". College Physics 2e. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/26-2-vision-correction. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Farsightedness (Hyperopia)". National Eye Institute. National Institutes of Health. https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/farsightedness-hyperopia. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Astigmatism". National Eye Institute. National Institutes of Health. https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/astigmatism. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 David Turbert (2026-05-21). "What Is Presbyopia?". American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/diseases/what-is-presbyopia. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Nitish Padmanaban, Robert Konrad, Gordon Wetzstein (2019). "Autofocals: Evaluating gaze-contingent eyeglasses for presbyopes". Science Advances, vol. 5, no. 6, eaav6187. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav6187. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav6187. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Daniel Porter (2023-04-18). "How to Read an Eyeglasses Prescription". American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/glasses-contacts/how-to-read-eyeglasses-prescription. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Brien A. Holden, Timothy R. Fricke, David A. Wilson, Monica Jong, Kovin S. Naidoo, Padmaja Sankaridurg, Tien Y. Wong, Thomas J. Naduvilath, Serge Resnikoff (2016). "Global Prevalence of Myopia and High Myopia and Temporal Trends from 2000 through 2050". Ophthalmology, vol. 123, no. 5, pp. 1036-1042. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.01.006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.01.006. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  11. ↑ Timothy R. Fricke, Nina Tahhan, Serge Resnikoff, Eric Papas, Anthea Burnett, Suit May Ho, Thomas Naduvilath, Kovin S. Naidoo (2018). "Global Prevalence of Presbyopia and Vision Impairment from Uncorrected Presbyopia: Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and Modelling". Ophthalmology, vol. 125, no. 10, pp. 1492-1499. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.04.013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.04.013. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Vision Correction in Mixed Reality: Rx Options for Meta Quest 3 + 3S". Meta Quest Blog. Meta Platforms. 2024-09-25. https://www.meta.com/blog/prescription-lenses-rx-glasses-contacts-vr-mr-headset-inserts-zenni-virtual-reality/. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Comfort". Mixed Reality documentation. Microsoft. 2020-06-25. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/mixed-reality/design/comfort. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Philip R. K. Turnbull, John R. Phillips (2017). "Ocular effects of virtual reality headset wear in young adults". Scientific Reports, vol. 7, article 16172. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-16320-6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-16320-6. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "How to put on and adjust your PS VR2 headset". PlayStation Support. Sony Interactive Entertainment. https://www.playstation.com/en-us/support/hardware/adjust-ps-vr2-headset/. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Nitish Padmanaban, Robert Konrad, Tal Stramer, Emily A. Cooper, Gordon Wetzstein (2017). "Optimizing virtual reality for all users through gaze-contingent and adaptive focus displays". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114, no. 9, pp. 2183-2188. doi:10.1073/pnas.1617251114. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1617251114. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 VIVE Team (2025-07-22). "VR With Glasses: Using VIVE Headsets If You Wear Eyeglasses". VIVE Blog. HTC. https://blog.vive.com/us/can-you-use-a-vr-headset-with-glasses-learn-how-htc-vive-headsets-support-glasses-wearers-and-what-you-need-to-consider-for-comfort-in-virtual-reality/. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  18. ↑ "How to Wear Glasses While Using Meta Quest". Meta Quest Help. Meta Platforms. https://www.meta.com/help/quest/3920738394639999/. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  19. ↑ "HoloLens 2 fit and comfort FAQ". HoloLens documentation. Microsoft. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/hololens/hololens2-fit-comfort-faq. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 "Using Apple Vision Pro with vision prescriptions and vision conditions". Apple Support. Apple. https://support.apple.com/en-us/120052. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  21. ↑ "Setting up the Oculus Rift DK1". Microsoft Learn (archived MSDN blog). Microsoft. 2014-11-18. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/archive/blogs/nathalievangelist/setting-up-the-oculus-rift-dk1. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  22. ↑ Ben Lang (2014-07-08). "Exclusive: Early Oculus Rift DK2 Unboxing, "The color, contrast, and motion is leaps and bounds over the DK1"". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/early-oculus-rift-dk2-unboxing/. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Display Adjustment". Rokid. Rokid. https://global.rokid.com/blogs/display-adjustment. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  24. ↑ David Heaney (2025-10-03). "Which Prescriptions Meta Ray-Ban Display Supports, And How That Works". UploadVR. https://www.uploadvr.com/meta-ray-ban-display-glasses-prescription-support/. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  25. ↑ Praneeth Chakravarthula, David Dunn, Kaan Akşit, Henry Fuchs (2018). "FocusAR: Auto-focus Augmented Reality Eyeglasses for both Real World and Virtual Imagery". IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 2906-2916. doi:10.1109/TVCG.2018.2868532. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2018.2868532. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  26. ↑ Fu-Chung Huang, Gordon Wetzstein, Brian A. Barsky, Ramesh Raskar (2014). "Eyeglasses-free Display: Towards Correcting Visual Aberrations with Computational Light Field Displays". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 33, no. 4, article 59 (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 2014). doi:10.1145/2601097.2601122. https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~barsky/siggraph.2014.html. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  27. ↑ Ahmet H. Güzel, Jeanne Beyazian, Praneeth Chakravarthula, Kaan Akşit (2023). "ChromaCorrect: prescription correction in virtual reality headsets through perceptual guidance". Biomedical Optics Express, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 2166-2180. doi:10.1364/BOE.485776. https://doi.org/10.1364/BOE.485776. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  28. ↑ Jaume Pujol, Juan Carlos Ondategui-Parra, Llorenç Badiella, Carles Otero, Meritxell Vilaseca, Mikel Aldaba (2017). "Spherical subjective refraction with a novel 3D virtual reality based system". Journal of Optometry, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 43-51. doi:10.1016/j.optom.2015.12.005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optom.2015.12.005. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  29. ↑ Ashish Goyal, Ajit Bopardikar, Vijay Narayan Tiwari (2018). "Estimation of Spherical Refractive Errors Using Virtual Reality Headset". 2018 40th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). doi:10.1109/EMBC.2018.8513209. https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2018.8513209. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  30. ↑ Chin-Te Huang, Chien-Nien Lin, Shyan-Tarng Chen, Hui-Ying Kuo, Han-Yin Sun (2024). "An Innovative Virtual Reality System for Measuring Refractive Error". Diagnostics, vol. 14, no. 15, article 1633. doi:10.3390/diagnostics14151633. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14151633. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  31. ↑ Zihang Xu, Aiqi Zou, Li Li, Yan Wu, Wenting Cai, Jingyang Ma, Jing Yu (2024). "Effect of virtual reality-based visual training for myopia control in children: a randomized controlled trial". BMC Ophthalmology, vol. 24, article 358. doi:10.1186/s12886-024-03580-w. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03580-w. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
  32. ↑ Jing Zhong, Yu Liu, Tianli Peng, Jing Ma, Ziting Huang, Xiao Yang, Shi-Ming Li, Jin Yuan (2026-08-27). "Digital Defocus Vision Training Using Virtual Reality for Myopia Control: A Randomized Clinical Trial". JAMA Ophthalmology. doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2026.3490. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2026.3490. Retrieved 2026-10-15.
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