Volumetric display
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A volumetric display is a three-dimensional display that forms its image inside a physical volume: each volume element, or voxel, of the scene emits or scatters visible light from the place in space where it appears.[1] Because the image actually occupies a region of space, several people standing around the device can look at it from different sides at once without glasses or a headset, and their eyes converge and focus on the same point, so volumetric displays avoid the vergence-accommodation conflict of stereoscopic goggles and lenticular or parallax-barrier screens.[1][2]
The main approaches are swept-volume displays, which move a screen or light-emitting surface rapidly through the volume and rely on persistence of vision; static-volume displays, which make points inside a solid, liquid or gas emit light without moving parts; and free-space displays that draw with laser-induced plasma or with particles held in optical or acoustic traps.[1][2] Commercial examples include Actuality Systems' Perspecta, LightSpace Technologies' DepthCube and the desktop displays of the Australian company Voxon Photonics.[1][3]
For virtual and augmented reality, volumetric displays are a way to show 3D content without a headset: the image sits in the shared room rather than inside a head-mounted display. Research on interacting with them draws on VR interaction techniques, and the word "volumetric" is also used for a class of near-eye AR displays that place image points at many physical focal depths.[4][5]
Definition and terminology
Gregg Favalora, a founder of Actuality Systems, defined volumetric displays in a 2005 IEEE Computer article as displays that "produce volume-filling three-dimensional imagery", in which each voxel "emits visible light from the region in which it appears". He quoted the definition of Barry Blundell and Adam Schwarz, authors of the 2000 book Volumetric Three-Dimensional Display Systems: "[a] volumetric display device permits the generation, absorption, or scattering of visible radiation from a set of localized and specified regions within a physical volume."[1] Favalora noted that the 3D display community had not agreed whether holograms create volumetric images, and that highly multiview displays projecting 30 to 200 views of a scene might also be admitted to the family.[1]
In a 2023 review in Current Optics and Photonics, Joonku Hahn and colleagues at Kyungpook National University observed that, read broadly, the term could cover almost every autostereoscopic display that forms voxels in space, including light field displays, integral imaging and holographic displays, but that the display industry generally uses it without including flat light field or holographic displays.[2] They proposed a topological definition instead. A flat or curved-surface 3D display and a near-eye 3D display both present images through an open display surface; the near-eye type moves its surface with the user. A volumetric display has a closed display surface with the virtual space inside it and the users around it. In the fourth case, the immersive 3D display, the display surface is also closed but the virtual space surrounds the user's space.[2]
A narrower physical definition is used for free-space displays. Daniel Smalley and colleagues at Brigham Young University describe free-space volumetric displays as "displays that create luminous image points in space", and Wesley Rogers and Smalley write that volumetric images are defined as "having image points co-located with physical point scatterers".[6][7] Reporting on Smalley's work, BYU Magazine wrote that the floating Princess Leia image in Star Wars is not a hologram: "A 3-D image that floats in space, that you can walk all around and see from every angle, is actually a volumetric image."[8]
A volumetric display is a display device and is distinct from volumetric video and volumetric capture, which record people or scenes as 3D data that is usually viewed on headsets or flat screens.
How it works
Swept-volume displays
In a swept-volume display a surface moves through the image volume and emits or reflects light synchronized with its position. Favalora wrote that this was proposed "as early as 1912"; the surface is usually a plane or helix that rotates or translates, and if the volume is refreshed often enough (he gave about 20 volumes per second as an example) the viewer perceives a 3D image.[1] Hahn et al. split these systems into rotationally swept systems, which they say have advantages in mechanical operation, vibration and durability, and axially swept systems in which the image surface moves back and forth.[2]
Actuality Systems' Perspecta is a rotating example. A high-speed DLP projection engine relays about 6,000 images per second onto an omnidirectional diffuser screen spinning at or above 900 rpm; relay mirrors rotate with the screen so that focus and keystone stay constant at every screen angle. The display shows 198 slices of 768 x 768 pixels, sweeps the volume twice per revolution for a 30 Hz visual refresh rate, and forms an image about 10 inches across that can be viewed from all 360 degrees.[1] Each voxel has 3-bit color at the highest spatial resolution, and dithering algorithms give the observer the impression of fuller color.[1]
Voxon's Voxiebox is an axially swept display: according to Hahn et al., its screen is driven by actuators in resonant vertical motion while high-speed projectors update the image slices projected onto it.[2] In a 2022 interview, Voxon chief executive Gavin Smith described the company's approach as a projection screen driven at its resonant frequency so that it moves up and down 30 times per second, with projection engines built on micromirror chips; he said the VX1 renders 30 volumes per second, each of around 1,000 x 1,000 x 200 voxels.[3]
Swept surfaces need not be passive screens. Favalora cites Edwin Berlin's 1977 patent for a rotating panel covered with LEDs, and Hahn et al. describe a later rotating LED array with 320 x 256 full-color resolution that displays 512 image slices per revolution in an 800 x 800 x 640 mm volume.[1][2] LightSpace Technologies' DepthCube has no macroscopic moving parts but works on the same principle: a projector throws 20 slices per volume into a stack of liquid crystal panels, each of which switches between transparent and light-scattering, so that only one panel scatters light at any instant. Favalora gives its output as a 1,024 x 768 x 20-voxel, 15-bit-color image repeated 50 times per second.[1] Hahn et al. classify such switchable-panel stacks with swept-volume systems rather than static-volume systems because the image surface still sweeps through the volume.[2]
Static-volume displays
Static-volume displays make a volume emit light while its bulk properties stay fixed.[1] In 1996 Elizabeth Downing, Lambertus Hesselink, John Ralston and Roger Macfarlane described in Science a three-color, solid-state display based on two-step, two-frequency upconversion in rare-earth-doped heavy metal fluoride glass. Infrared laser beams intersect inside the glass and excite red, green or blue voxels at the intersection; scanning that point draws wire frames, surfaces and solids. The prototype used laser diodes and mechanical scanners and was bright enough to be seen in ambient room light.[9]
A chemical variant was reported in 2017 by Shreya Patel, Jian Cao and Alexander Lippert. Their "3D Light PAD" uses a photoactivatable dye that becomes reversibly fluorescent under ultraviolet light, so that fluorescence appears where two structured light beams intersect; the first prototype used a commercial picoprojector, an ultraviolet projector and a quartz imaging chamber, and had a minimum voxel size of 0.68 cubic millimetres.[10]
Laser-plasma and bubble displays
Focused pulsed lasers can make a point of air glow. In 2006 Burton Inc., Keio University and Japan's National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) showed a device that draws dot arrays in open air with an infrared pulsed laser (pulse repetition about 100 Hz), using galvanometer mirrors for the x and y axes and a lens on a linear motor to move the focal point in depth. The SIGGRAPH 2006 paper describes one nanosecond-scale pulse per dot and a 100 dot per second display, with drawing points several meters from the device.[11][12] Burton's website presented the technology under the name "Aerial Burton", and a 2011 New Atlas report on its "True 3D" display gave about 50,000 dots per second at 10 to 15 frames per second.[13][14]
Yoichi Ochiai and colleagues used femtosecond rather than nanosecond lasers in "Fairy Lights in Femtoseconds" (ACM Transactions on Graphics, 2016), arguing that femtosecond-induced plasma is safer. With a 30 to 100 fs laser at up to 1,000 pulses per second and a 269 fs laser at up to 200,000 pulses per second, they reported 4,000 and 200,000 dots per second respectively.[15] Kota Kumagai, Satoshi Hasegawa and Yoshio Hayasaki then used femtosecond-laser-induced microbubbles in a high-viscosity liquid as voxels (Optica, 2017); the bubbles are colored by an illumination light source.[2]
Optical and acoustic trap displays
The Optical Trap Display published by Smalley's group in Nature in 2018 holds a single cellulose particle in a photophoretic trap formed by spherical and astigmatic aberrations, then scans the trap through the display volume while red, green and blue lasers illuminate the particle. Persistence of vision turns the particle's path into an image with ten-micrometre image points.[6] Smalley called the device "a 3-D printer for light"; the images made by early 2018, including a butterfly and a figure crouched in a Princess Leia pose, were about 2 to 3 centimetres in size.[8] In 2021 Rogers and Smalley described a typical drawing volume of about 1 cubic centimetre, which must be redrawn more than ten times a second to avoid flicker, and named scaling the volume above 100 cubic centimetres as one of the main challenges.[7]
The Multimodal Acoustic Trap Display (MATD), published in Nature in November 2019 by Ryuji Hirayama, Diego Martinez Plasencia, Nobuyuki Masuda and Sriram Subramanian (lead author Hirayama was a Rutherford Fellow at the University of Sussex), uses ultrasound instead of light to hold the particle. It traps a particle acoustically, colors it with red, green and blue light as it scans the volume, and reaches particle speeds of 8.75 m/s vertically and 3.75 m/s horizontally.[16] Hahn et al. describe its hardware as two 16 x 16 ultrasound transducer arrays above and below the volume, levitating expanded polystyrene particles of 1 mm radius.[2] Using time multiplexing with a secondary trap, amplitude modulation and phase minimization, the system also delivers sound and tactile content, all from acoustophoresis as its single operating principle.[16]
Classification
Hahn et al. proposed replacing the traditional swept-volume and static-volume split with three categories based on how the voxels are formed:[2]
| Category | How voxels are formed | Element dimension | Can show occlusion | Examples named by Hahn et al. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sequentially swept volume system | 2D image slices that emit light in all directions are moved through the volume, rotationally or axially | 2D | No | Perspecta, rotating LED array, Voxon's Voxiebox, DepthCube |
| Viewpoint-surrounding volume system | 2D images emit light in specific directions, so one voxel is built from pixels of several images; cylinder or hemisphere (tabletop) layouts | 2D | Yes | Seelinder, USC 360-degree light field display, fVisiOn, holographic tabletop displays |
| Point light voxel system | Each voxel is a single point of light, either self-emitting (plasma, bubbles, upconversion) or scattered by a trapped particle | 0D | No | Laser-induced plasma, bubble and upconversion displays; acoustic and photophoretic trap displays |
The authors note that point light systems can show content in free space not occupied by optical structures, but must scan their points, which limits the refresh rate.[2] They also regard fog-screen projection as a 2D display unless several projectors create direction-dependent views in the fog.[2]
Properties and limitations
Favalora listed the main advantages as a wide field of view, consistent vergence and accommodation, support for several simultaneous observers, high-resolution imagery and full parallax, which lets viewers look around a scene horizontally and vertically. He contrasted this with lenticular and parallax-barrier displays, which offer horizontal parallax only and keep the viewer's head within several centimetres of a designated viewing zone.[1]
One limitation is transparency. In most swept and point-light systems every voxel emits in all directions, so the image is translucent and cannot hide surfaces behind other surfaces; Favalora attributed this to the choice of omnidirectional diffuser screens rather than to rotating or translating screens as such.[1][2] In 2007 Cossairt, Napoli, Hill, Dorval and Favalora described a version of the rotating-screen architecture with a screen of limited diffusing angle, so that each slice emits in a specific direction and occlusion can be shown; Hahn et al. classify that system as viewpoint-surrounding rather than swept.[2]
Another limit is size. Because the image points of a true volumetric display must lie inside the drawing volume, Rogers and Smalley note that such displays cannot show virtual images: an optically correct image of the moon seen through a window "would require the OTD display to be scaled to astronomical proportions". They proposed simulating virtual images with a time-varying perspective projection backdrop drawn inside the volume.[7] Smalley's group has also argued that free-space displays avoid the "clipping" that affects displays modulating light at a 2D surface with an edge, such as holographic, lenticular and lenslet displays, and can produce geometries such as "wrap-around" images.[6]
Projector bandwidth is a further constraint. Favalora gave the example of a DLP chip producing 1,024 x 768 pixels at more than 8,000 one-bit frames per second, about 6.3 gigapixels per second, as the projection component used in several 3D displays, and noted that the optical bandwidth of the embedded projector determines a display's visual performance.[1]
History
| Year | Development |
|---|---|
| 1912 | Earliest proposal, according to Favalora, of a volume-filling image produced by light from a rotating or oscillating 2D surface[1] |
| 1958 | Max Hirsch files a patent (US 2,967,905) in which mirrors rotate with a projection screen to keep the image in focus[1] |
| 1960 | Richard Ketchpel introduces an electron-gun design illuminating a rotating phosphor screen (US 3,140,415)[1] |
| 1966 | Alan Traub files a varifocal-mirror patent application (US 3,493,290); a varifocal mirror was also the basis of the once commercially available Genisco/BBN SpaceGraph, used in applications such as medical imaging[1] |
| c. 1976 | Several organizations build displays that project scanned point images onto rotating screens, with images more than a metre across[1] |
| 1977 | Edwin Berlin files a patent for a rotating panel of LEDs (US 4,160,973)[1] |
| 1994 | Second-generation laser display of the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR): 40,000 voxels per color channel at 20 Hz[1] |
| 1996 | Downing et al. publish the three-color solid-state upconversion display in Science[9] |
| 2002 | Actuality Systems presents the "100-million-voxel" Perspecta at SPIE; LightSpace Technologies presents the DepthCube at the SID symposium[2] |
| 2005 | Seelinder, a rotating cylindrical LED and parallax-barrier display with 360 viewpoints, is shown by Yendo, Kawakami and Susumu Tachi at SIGGRAPH[2] |
| 2006 | Burton, Keio University and AIST demonstrate laser-plasma dots in open air[11] |
| 2007 | Jones, McDowall, Yamada, Mark Bolas and Debevec show a 360-degree light field display using a spinning anisotropic holographic diffuser[2] |
| 2016 | "Fairy Lights in Femtoseconds" femtosecond-laser plasma display[15] |
| 2017 | Volumetric bubble display (Optica) and the photoactivatable dye 3D Light PAD (Nature Communications)[2][10] |
| 2018 | Photophoretic Optical Trap Display published in Nature[6] |
| 2019 | Multimodal Acoustic Trap Display published in Nature[16] |
| 2024 | Voxon launches the VX2-XL, billed in 80 Level's report as the world's largest 3D volumetric display[17] |
| 2025 | FlexiVol reach-through swept-volume display presented at CHI 2025[18] |
Commercial systems
| System | Maker | Type | Reported characteristics |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perspecta Spatial 3D | Actuality Systems | Rotating screen | 198 slices of 768 x 768 pixels, 30 Hz volume refresh, image about 10 in (25 cm) across, viewable through 360 degrees[1][19] |
| DepthCube | LightSpace Technologies | Stack of switchable liquid crystal panels | 1,024 x 768 x 20 voxels, 15-bit color, 50 volumes per second[1] |
| VX1 | Voxon Photonics | Reciprocating screen | About 1,000 x 1,000 x 200 voxels, 30 volumes per second (company figures)[3] |
| VX2 | Voxon Photonics (Voxel Photonics) | Swept volume ("VLED" platform) | 25 cm diameter x 25 cm high volume, 30 volumes per second, listed at US$6,800[20] |
| VX2-XL | Voxon Photonics (Voxel Photonics) | Swept volume ("VLED" platform) | 52 cm diameter x 25 cm high volume, 20 volumes per second, price on quotation[20] |
| Aerial Burton / True 3D | Burton Inc. | Laser-induced air plasma | About 50,000 dots per second at 10 to 15 frames per second (2011 report)[14] |
Favalora wrote in 2005 that Perspecta and DepthCube were already commercially available, and that crossed-beam solid-state displays had not yet reached the market.[1] Voxon Photonics is based in Adelaide, South Australia; Smith has said the company grew out of weekly tinkering sessions in his friend Will Tamblyn's shed and that the Build engine programmer Ken Silverman joined in 2013 as a co-founder and chief computer scientist.[3] The company's former web address now redirects to a site under the name Voxel Photonics, which lists the VX2 and VX2-XL, software plugins for Unity, Unreal Engine and Blender, and an SDK for C, C++ and C#. It describes both displays as using "swept-volume LED technology", in which a high-speed surface sweeps a 2D image through the volume.[20] Smith announced the VX2-XL in November 2024, offered through the company's partner program; 80 Level reported a display volume 512 mm in diameter and 256 mm high and up to 16 million color voxels.[17]
Applications in VR and AR
Headset-free 3D
Researchers and manufacturers present volumetric displays as a way to see 3D content without wearing anything. Grossman, Wigdor and Balakrishnan noted that the user "does not have to wear hardware such as shutter glasses or head-trackers", and the University of Sussex described the MATD's images as "visible without the need for VR or AR headsets".[4][21] The Voxel Photonics site makes the same contrast, stating that "virtual reality isolates each viewer inside a headset" while its displays let people gather around content.[20] In Hahn's topological scheme, a volumetric display encloses a virtual space that users stand around, whereas a near-eye display presents images through an open display surface that moves with the user, and an immersive display surrounds the user's space with virtual space.[2]
Interaction techniques
Interaction research on volumetric displays drew on VR methods and examined where the two differ. In their UIST 2004 paper, Grossman, Wigdor and Balakrishnan built a model-building application on an early Perspecta with camera-tracked finger gestures on and around its hemispherical enclosure. They pointed out that in VR objects can be far away, whereas in a volumetric display everything is within arm's reach, yet the protective enclosure stops users from reaching in to grab objects.[4][1] In a 2006 follow-up, Grossman and Balakrishnan tested selection techniques taken from VR: a ray cursor beat a 3D point cursor for single targets, and a new "depth ray" that disambiguates among several intersected targets reduced movement time, errors and input device footprint compared with the point cursor in dense scenes.[22]
FlexiVol, from Asier Marzo's group at the Public University of Navarra, removes the enclosure problem by replacing the rigid swept diffuser with elastic strips that a hand can pass through.[18] Display Daily reported that the strips are made of polyester and elastane and that the user study had 18 participants; the authors report that selection, docking and tracing tasks were completed faster with direct reach-through interaction than with a 3D mouse.[18][23]
Multisensory and mixed reality displays
The MATD combines a volumetric image with sound and touch produced by the same acoustic system; its tactile output is a form of mid-air haptic feedback.[16] A team including Joonku Hahn has also built a see-through volumetric display for mixed reality. Most volumetric displays block the view of the real scene behind their screens, so Park et al. (Optics Express, 2022) used a wavelength-selective asymmetric diffusive holographic optical element that diffuses only the display's light, letting the virtual object and the real scene be combined across 360 degrees.[24]
Volumetric near-eye displays
The word "volumetric" is also applied to some head-mounted displays that place image points at many focal depths so that the eye can accommodate naturally. Kishore Rathinavel, Hanpeng Wang, Alex Blate and Henry Fuchs presented a full-color volumetric near-eye AR display in 2018 in which a focus-tunable lens sweeps a sequence of 280 synchronized binary images from a high-speed DMD projector. The display places full-color voxels at 280 depth positions from 15 cm (6.7 diopters) to 4 m (0.25 diopters).[5] Such designs are related to varifocal displays, which change a single focal distance instead of showing many depths at once.
Other uses
Favalora listed medical imaging, mechanical computer-aided design and military visualization as early fields of adoption, and Perspecta applications ranging from interventional planning to battlefield simulation and molecular modeling.[1] At Rush University Medical Center, a Perspecta was connected to the Pinnacle radiation therapy planning system with a PHANTOM Omni haptic device as a 3D mouse; the 2009 quality-assurance study found doses at sampled points agreed with Pinnacle within 1 percent or 1 mm.[19] The Voxel Photonics site lists museums and exhibitions, entertainment, research, medicine, animation and game design, defense, education and industry among its target sectors.[20]
See also
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 Gregg E. Favalora (2005-08). "Volumetric 3D displays and application infrastructure". Computer (IEEE Computer Society), vol. 38, no. 8, pp. 37-44. doi:10.1109/MC.2005.276. https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2005.276. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 Joonku Hahn, Woonchan Moon, Hosung Jeon, Minwoo Jung, Seongju Lee, Gunhee Lee, Muhan Choi (2023-12). "Volumetric 3D Display: Features and Classification". Current Optics and Photonics, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 597-607. doi:10.3807/COPP.2023.7.6.597. https://doi.org/10.3807/COPP.2023.7.6.597. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Theodore McKenzie (interview with Gavin Smith) (2022-11-28). "Voxon VX1: A Volumetric Display That Shows 3D Models as Holograms". 80 Level. https://80.lv/articles/voxon-vx1-a-volumetric-display-that-shows-3d-models-as-holograms. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Tovi Grossman, Daniel Wigdor, Ravin Balakrishnan (2004-10). "Multi-Finger Gestural Interaction with 3D Volumetric Displays". Proceedings of the 17th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST 2004), pp. 61-70. doi:10.1145/1029632.1029644. https://www.dgp.toronto.edu/~ravin/papers/uist2004_volumetric.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 D. E. Smalley, E. Nygaard, K. Squire, J. Van Wagoner, J. Rasmussen, S. Gneiting, K. Qaderi, J. Goodsell, W. Rogers, M. Lindsey, K. Costner, A. Monk, M. Pearson, B. Haymore, J. Peatross (2018-01-25). "A photophoretic-trap volumetric display". Nature, vol. 553, no. 7689, pp. 486-490. doi:10.1038/nature25176. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25176. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Wesley Rogers, Daniel Smalley (2021-04-06). "Simulating virtual images in optical trap displays". Scientific Reports, vol. 11, article 7522. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-86495-6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-86495-6. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Better Than a Hologram". BYU Magazine (Spring 2018 issue). Brigham Young University. 2018. https://magazine.byu.edu/article/better-than-a-hologram/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Elizabeth Downing, Lambertus Hesselink, John Ralston, Roger Macfarlane (1996-08-30). "A Three-Color, Solid-State, Three-Dimensional Display". Science, vol. 273, no. 5279, pp. 1185-1189. doi:10.1126/science.273.5279.1185. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.273.5279.1185. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Shreya K. Patel, Jian Cao, Alexander R. Lippert (2017-07-11). "A volumetric three-dimensional digital light photoactivatable dye display". Nature Communications, vol. 8, article 15239. doi:10.1038/ncomms15239. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15239. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Hidei Kimura, Taro Uchiyama, Hiroyuki Yoshikawa (2006). "Laser produced 3D Display in the air". ACM SIGGRAPH 2006 Emerging Technologies. ACM SIGGRAPH History Archive. doi:10.1145/1179133.1179154. https://history.siggraph.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/2006-20-Kimura_Laser3DDisplay.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ "Japanese Device Uses Laser Plasma to Display 3D Images in the Air". Phys.org. 2006-02-27. https://phys.org/news/2006-02-japanese-device-laser-plasma-3d.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ "Aerial Burton". Burton Inc. (archived copy). Burton Inc.. https://web.archive.org/web/2016/http://www.burton-jp.com/en/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Randolph Jonsson (2011-11-16). "Burton rolls out True 3D laser plasma display". New Atlas (now hosted by Refractor). https://refractor.io/science/burton-rolls-out-true-3d-laser-plasma-display/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Yoichi Ochiai, Kota Kumagai, Takayuki Hoshi, Jun Rekimoto, Satoshi Hasegawa, Yoshio Hayasaki (2016). "Fairy Lights in Femtoseconds: Aerial and Volumetric Graphics Rendered by Focused Femtosecond Laser Combined with Computational Holographic Fields". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 35, no. 2, article 17 (arXiv preprint). doi:10.1145/2850414. https://arxiv.org/abs/1506.06668. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Ryuji Hirayama, Diego Martinez Plasencia, Nobuyuki Masuda, Sriram Subramanian (2019-11-13). "A volumetric display for visual, tactile and audio presentation using acoustic trapping". Nature, vol. 575, no. 7782, pp. 320-323. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1739-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1739-5. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Amber Rutherford (2024-11-28). "Voxon Photonics Released VX2-XL Display". 80 Level. https://80.lv/articles/voxon-shipped-vx2-xl-world-s-largest-3d-volumetric-display. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Elodie Bouzbib, Iosune Sarasate, Unai Javier Fernandez, Ivan Fernandez, Manuel Lopez-Amo, Inigo Ezcurdia, Asier Marzo (2025-04). "FlexiVol: a Volumetric Display with an Elastic Diffuser to Enable Reach-Through Interaction". Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1-16. UpnaLab, Universidad Publica de Navarra. doi:10.1145/3706598.3714315. https://upnalab.com/project/flexivol-reach-through-volumetric-display/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Xing Gong, Mike Kirk, Tom Zusag, Gocha Khelashvili, James Chu, Josh Napoli, Sandy Stutsman (2009). "Application of a 3D volumetric display for radiation therapy treatment planning I: quality assurance procedures". Journal of Applied Clinical Medical Physics, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 96-114. doi:10.1120/jacmp.v10i3.2900. https://doi.org/10.1120/jacmp.v10i3.2900. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 "Voxel Photonics: Unleash The Power of Volumetric 3D". Voxel Photonics. https://voxel3d.co/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ "Calling Princess Leia: How the out-of-this-galaxy Star Wars hologram just became a step closer to reality". TechXplore. University of Sussex. 2019-11-13. https://techxplore.com/news/2019-11-princess-leia-out-of-this-galaxy-star-wars.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ Tovi Grossman, Ravin Balakrishnan (2006-10). "The Design and Evaluation of Selection Techniques for 3D Volumetric Displays". Proceedings of the 19th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST 2006), pp. 3-12. doi:10.1145/1166253.1166257. https://www.dgp.toronto.edu/~ravin/papers/uist2006_volumetricselection.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ Joseph Bryans (2025-04-09). "A New Volumetric Display Allows Reach-Through Interaction With Virtual Floating Content". Display Daily. https://displaydaily.com/a-new-volumetric-display-allows-reach-through-interaction-with-virtual-floating-content/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
- ↑ Moonseong Park, Hosung Jeon, Daerak Heo, Sungjin Lim, Joonku Hahn (2022-12-13). "360-degree mixed reality volumetric display using an asymmetric diffusive holographic optical element". Optics Express, vol. 30, no. 26, pp. 47375-47387. doi:10.1364/OE.476965. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.476965. Retrieved 2026-10-06.