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Mid-air haptics

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Mid-air haptics is a group of haptics techniques that produce tactile sensations on a person's bare skin at a distance, without the user touching, holding or wearing any device. The most widely used approach focuses airborne ultrasound from a phased array of transducers onto the hand, where acoustic radiation pressure is felt as a point of touch; other approaches use air jets, air vortex rings, lasers and electric arcs.[1] In their 2021 survey in IEEE Transactions on Haptics, Rakkolainen and colleagues describe ultrasound haptics as "a contactless haptic technology that enables novel mid-air interactions with rich multisensory feedback" and call it the predominant contactless haptic technology in use.[1]

The first airborne ultrasound tactile display was presented by Takayuki Iwamoto, Mari Tatezono and Hiroyuki Shinoda in 2008.[2][1] Work at the University of Bristol on multi-point feedback (UltraHaptics, 2013) led to the company Ultrahaptics, which later became Ultraleap.[3][4][1] In virtual reality and augmented reality, mid-air haptics is studied as a way to let users feel virtual objects while their hands stay free for hand tracking, instead of relying on gloves or handheld controllers.[1][5]

Reviewed 6 October 2026. Checked bibliographic details of all cited papers against Crossref, the Rakkolainen et al. 2021 survey full text, paper abstracts, and the Bristol, rAVe, TechCrunch, MIXED, Road to VR, ROLI, Ultraleap and Emerge sources for every technical figure and company event. About review dates.

Definition and scope

Most haptic devices deliver touch through physical contact: vibration motors in controllers and phones, haptic gloves and exoskeletons, or force-feedback arms. Mid-air (contactless) haptics transfers the stimulus through the air instead, so no end effector has to be touched, moved against the skin or worn on the body.[1] The term is used in the research literature both for the whole family of contactless techniques and, more narrowly, for focused ultrasound, which is also called ultrasound haptics, ultrasonic haptics or ultrasound mid-air haptics (UMH).[1][5][3]

Mid-air haptic systems produce cutaneous (skin) sensations only. Rakkolainen et al. note that ultrasound cannot generate a strong static force or torque, so it cannot resist the movement of the hand the way a kinesthetic force-feedback device can.[1] The topic is distinct from ultrasonic tracking, which uses ultrasound for position sensing, and from surface haptics on touchscreens.

Ultrasound haptics

How it works

An ultrasound haptic display is an array of dozens to hundreds of small ultrasonic emitters. By setting the phase of each emitter so that all wavefronts arrive at the same place at the same time, the array creates a focal point where the sound pressure adds up. When skin intercepts the focal point, a nonlinear effect of high-intensity sound called acoustic radiation pressure pushes on it.[1][6] Because the focus is steered electronically, it can be moved anywhere in the working volume above the array without mechanical parts, and several focal points can be produced at once.[1][4]

Most devices use 40 kHz piezoelectric transducers, which are readily available because of their main use in the automotive industry and offer a balance of size, power, cost and attenuation. At 40 kHz the wavelength in air is 8.6 mm, which sets the size of a focal point at roughly the same scale; 70 kHz arrays have also been built to obtain smaller foci, at the cost of faster attenuation.[1] The focal region is elongated along the direction of propagation and may be several centimetres long. Regular grid layouts also create perceptible side (grating) lobes. In 2018 Adam Price and Benjamin Long showed that arranging the elements in a Fibonacci spiral suppresses them, and the survey notes that this layout has been produced commercially.[1][7]

Modulation

People cannot feel vibration at ultrasonic frequencies, and Iwamoto's first device showed that a steady focal point is felt only as it switches on and off. Modulating the focus at a frequency inside the vibrotactile range (about 5-1000 Hz) makes it feel like a vibration.[1] The main receptors involved are the Pacinian corpuscles of the hand, which are most sensitive around 200 Hz, so early systems modulated the amplitude at 200-250 Hz; lower frequencies can also stimulate Meissner corpuscles.[1]

The survey by Rakkolainen et al. lists three main modulation methods:[1]

Method Principle Notes
Amplitude modulation (AM) The output of a stationary focal point is switched or varied at a vibrotactile frequency The original method; it can cut average power output by as much as 50%
Lateral modulation (LM) The focus moves back and forth by a few millimetres around a target point at full power Described by Takahashi, Hasegawa and Shinoda in 2018; rated as producing stronger sensations than AM[8]
Spatiotemporal modulation (STM) A full-power focus is moved continuously along a path, such as a circle, to draw a shape Described by Frier et al. in 2018; perceived intensity was highest when the focus moved at a speed similar to wave propagation in the skin of the hand[9]

Perception

In a 2014 study by Wilson, Carter, Subramanian and Brewster, participants located a static focal point on the hand with an average error of 8.5 mm, and apparent motion felt more convincing over longer distances, with longer stimuli and with more intermediate points.[10] The sensation is felt mostly on the glabrous (hairless) skin of the palm and fingers; the back of the hand and most other body areas respond poorly, and gloves block the effect, although Suzuki et al. delivered ultrasound haptics to the upper body, through thin clothing, in a workspace larger than 1 m x 1 m x 1 m.[1] Other studies summarized in the survey rendered a sense of "stiffness" for virtual materials and induced a body-ownership illusion with falling virtual raindrops in VR, similar to the rubber hand illusion.[1]

History

Year Development
2005 Y. Suzuki and M. Kobayashi describe an untethered VR system in which air jets push against a lightweight paddle held by the user, combined with a projection stereo display and optical tracking[11]
2008 Iwamoto, Tatezono and Shinoda present the first airborne ultrasound tactile display at EuroHaptics; its hexagonal array focused ultrasound 25 cm above its centre[2][1]
2009 Hoshi, Iwamoto and Shinoda use dynamic phase control to move the focal point in three dimensions[1]
2010 Hoshi et al. publish a 324-transducer prototype in IEEE Transactions on Haptics; it produced 16 mN at a 20 mm focal point and vibrations up to 1 kHz, and was paired with a display so users could see and touch virtual objects[6]
2013 Carter et al. present UltraHaptics at UIST, generating multiple focal points through an acoustically transparent display; the 16 x 20 array produced up to five concurrent points[4][3]
2013 Disney Research Pittsburgh presents AIREAL at SIGGRAPH, an air-vortex display; AirWave, another vortex-ring system, is presented at UbiComp[12][13]
2013 Ultrahaptics is founded as a University of Bristol spin-out by Tom Carter, based on his PhD research[14]
2014 Long et al. render three-dimensional shapes in mid-air by projecting the cross-section of a virtual shape onto the hand[15]
2015 Sand et al. mount an ultrasound array on the front of a VR head-mounted display[16]; laser-induced tactile stimulation is reported in Scientific Reports[17]
2018 Ultrahaptics launches STRATOS Inspire, a plug-and-play module for public installations[18]
2019 Ultrahaptics acquires Leap Motion and the combined company becomes Ultraleap[1][19]
2019 Hirayama et al. demonstrate a levitating volumetric display that delivers visual, audio and tactile content using acoustic trapping as its single operating principle[20]
2025 Ultraleap joins the music technology company ROLI[21]

Research foundations

Iwamoto's 2008 device could only move its focus along the axis perpendicular to the array. Hoshi and colleagues added dynamic phase control in 2009 so the focal point could be moved in three dimensions, which let them produce complex patterns in air for the first time.[1] Their 2010 journal paper described a prototype with 324 individually controlled transducers and an interaction system in which users could see and touch virtual objects.[6] The 2013 UltraHaptics paper described a method for producing several focal points at once; its psychophysical tests showed that feedback points with different tactile properties could be told apart at smaller separations, and that users could learn to distinguish the vibration frequencies of the points with training.[4][1] Long et al. followed in 2014 with an algorithm that renders volumetric shapes such as spheres, pyramids and cones; in their user study shape identification ranged from 61 to 94%, and similar shapes, such as a cone and a pyramid, were often confused.[15][1]

Open research hardware has lowered the cost of entry. Ultraino, published by Asier Marzo, Tom Corkett and Bruce Drinkwater in 2018, is an open platform whose Arduino Mega-based driver board controls 64 channels; boards can be chained for more channels, and its authors demonstrated 40 kHz arrays for haptic feedback, acoustic levitation and parametric audio.[22] The AUTD3 system, described by Suzuki, Inoue, Fujiwara, Makino and Shinoda in 2021, uses 249-transducer modules linked over EtherCAT; its authors synchronized 20 modules to within 0.1 microseconds and formed a focal point 500 mm above an array of nine modules.[23]

Other contactless methods

Method How it works Reported characteristics
Air jets Fans or pressurized nozzles push a stream of air against the skin or a held object Relatively strong, continuous forces but limited spatial control[1][11]
Air vortex rings A ring of air travels to the user and imparts a force when it collapses on the skin AIREAL used five actuators and a 3D-printed flexible nozzle to aim vortices within a 75-degree field with 8.5 cm resolution at 1 m;[12][24] AirWave achieved under 10 cm resolution at 2.5 m.[13] Vortices travel up to about 3 m, but arrive with a delay and cannot give continuous sensations[1]
Lasers Laser light produces tactile effects on the skin, for example through laser-induced thermoelastic effects, or with femtosecond laser pulses Jun et al. reported skin surface warming of less than about 2.5 °C and non-painful sensations;[17] Ochiai et al. combined femtosecond-laser and ultrasonic fields and explored AR and VR uses[25]
Electric arcs Touchable electric arcs over a surface Very high spatial resolution but short range; the arcs in the Sparkle prototype were 6 mm long[1]

Applications in VR and AR

Virtual reality

One early VR approach attached the array to the headset. In 2015 Sand and colleagues mounted an ultrasonic array and a hand-position sensor on the front of a head-mounted VR display.[16] The array then moves with the user, but Rakkolainen et al. note that the palms must face back towards the headset, so users cannot reach forward and explore an object in front of them.[1] The alternative is an array grounded in front of the user and facing up towards the hands; the survey notes that a Leap Motion optical hand tracker is typically used to map haptic patterns to the position of the hand.[1]

Several studies built VR games and instruments around the technique. AirPiano (2017) used ultrasound to imitate the resistance of piano keys in an HMD-based piano, and its user study found that mid-air feedback significantly improved the experience.[26] At IEEE VR 2018 researchers including Ultrahaptics founder Tom Carter presented a wizard-apprentice VR experience whose spells were rendered as mid-air haptic patterns, and a VR rhythm game that its authors described as the first mid-air haptic rhythm game in VR.[27][28]

The small working volume of a fixed array is a central problem for VR. Researchers have put arrays on motors and robots to follow the hand: the PUMAH pan-tilt array, whose authors claim a 14-fold increase in interaction space;[1] a 2022 system by Villa et al. that moves an array with a six-degree-of-freedom robot to approach room-scale mid-air haptics;[29] and UltraBots, a 2022 proposal to carry arrays on tabletop robots or robot arms guided by the hand tracking of a VR headset.[30] In 2025 Mulot et al. used several non-coplanar devices to give feedback to both hands during two-handed grasping and shape exploration in VR.[5] A 2024 study with 30 participants found that adding ultrasound feedback made virtual objects, especially solid ones, feel more congruent with what users saw, and consistently raised their perceived temperature.[31]

Augmented and mixed reality

At SIGGRAPH 2017 Emerging Technologies, Kervegant and colleagues combined a Microsoft HoloLens with an Ultrahaptics touch development kit so that a hologram seen through the glasses could also be felt.[32] Other mixed reality examples described by Rakkolainen et al. include an AR "bio-hologram" in which users see and feel their own beating heart, using AR glasses, a wearable heart rate sensor and an array on the desk. The same survey describes a study of ultrasonic cues on the cheek, forehead and above the eyebrows as a feedback channel for AR glasses.[1] Displays that put the image and the tactile point in the same mid-air location, such as projected mid-air displays with tactile buttons and acoustic levitation displays, are a related research line.[1][20]

Consumer and location-based products

Ultrahaptics marketed its STRATOS platform for digital signage, location-based entertainment and interactive displays. The rAVe report on the 2018 STRATOS Inspire launch says the technology had been demonstrated in AR and VR and with brands including Dell, Coca-Cola and Pagani.[18] In January 2022 the Los Angeles company Emerge announced Wave-1, a tabletop ultrasound device with about the footprint of a 13-inch laptop, as part of its Emerge Home system; it said the system would be offered on Kickstarter in February at a retail value of US$499 for a limited time. Emerge said Wave-1 created a field of interaction up to three feet above the device and 120 degrees around it.[33] MIXED reported that Wave-1 was paired with the Meta Quest 2 and its hand tracking, with shipping planned for September 2022 at the earliest, and called it "more of an expensive gadget for experimental VR enthusiasts" because of its limited software.[34]

Other applications

Mid-air haptics has also been developed for touchless controls outside XR. Ultrahaptics worked on automotive concept vehicles with Bosch and Harman, and listed digital signage, industrial controls and medical interfaces among its markets.[14] Studies in driving simulators suggest that mid-air feedback for in-car buttons, sliders and dials helps drivers keep their eyes on the road, and Shakeri's results suggest pairing it with at least one other feedback modality.[1] TechCrunch reported in 2021 that Ultraleap was working with DS Automobiles and Hosiden on mid-air haptics,[35] and in 2024 that its automotive approach used a console-mounted device firing upward to give a sense of touch for in-car head-up displays.[19] Other research uses include sterile medical interfaces, palpation and pulse training, interactive advertising, and reading Braille in mid-air.[1]

Industry

Ultrahaptics raised a £35 million Series C round in December 2018 led by Mayfair Equity Partners.[14] After it acquired Leap Motion in 2019 and became Ultraleap, the company set out to combine optical hand tracking with mid-air haptics; TechCrunch reported a purchase price of around US$30 million.[19] In November 2021 it raised a US$82 million (£60 million) Series D round led by Tencent, British Patient Capital's Future Fund: Breakthrough and CMB International.[35] In November 2022 Ultraleap announced new ultrasonic transducers; according to chief executive Tom Carter, the transducer is only a fraction of a wavelength thick, and the company said the new design was smaller, cheaper and easier to build than earlier models.[36] At CES 2024 it showed Sensation Designer, a software package for developers to add haptics to XR applications.[19]

In June 2024 Ultraleap told staff it was proposing layoffs as part of a restructuring. Road to VR, citing Sky News, reported that the company was seeking to sell its hand-tracking business and spin out its mid-air haptics division as a new company owned by existing shareholders; Ultraleap confirmed the layoffs but not the restructuring details.[37] On 11 November 2025 ROLI announced that Ultraleap was joining it, with Tom Carter becoming ROLI's chief technology officer.[21] Ultraleap's website, which carries the ROLI announcement, still lists mid-air haptics software and a Haptics Development Kit.[38]

A multi-author Springer book, Ultrasound Mid-Air Haptics for Touchless Interfaces (2022), edited by Orestis Georgiou, William Frier, Euan Freeman, Claudio Pacchierotti and Takayuki Hoshi, collects research on the field.[39]

Limitations

Limitation Details
Weak force The total force from one array is about 0.016 N, compared with force thresholds of around 1.5 N for physical buttons; it cannot resist hand movement[1]
Range For a 16 x 16 array, intensity peaks about 10 cm above the centre and becomes hard to perceive beyond about 40-50 cm[1]
Resolution Focal points are about the size of the wavelength (8.6 mm at 40 kHz), far coarser than the features that make up material textures[1]
Body coverage Mostly felt on the palm side of the hand; gloves block it[1]
Size, power and cost At least about 100 transducers are needed for a strong effect; the 256-transducer STRATOS Inspire draws 80 W at peak, and the survey put commercial arrays at several thousand US dollars[1]
Tracking dependence The hand must be tracked precisely so feedback lands in the right place, which in VR or AR also requires tracking the head[1]
Noise and interference The 40 kHz carrier is inaudible, but modulation can make faint audible noise, and nearby phone microphones picked up artifacts in the survey authors' tests[1]

Safety

Sound pressure at an ultrasound focal point can exceed 140 dB. Rakkolainen et al. cite occupational exposure recommendations for continuous 40 kHz ultrasound of 110 dB (140 dB peak), and a UK Health Protection Agency recommendation of 100 dB for frequencies of 25 kHz and above. One study they cite found the ear is typically exposed to 110-120 dB during normal use of a haptic device, with no shift in hearing thresholds.[1] In a 2019 study by Carcagno, Di Battista and Plack, nine young listeners were exposed to a 40 kHz tone at 105 to 120 dB SPL; none of the hearing measures changed significantly compared with a control group, and EEG showed no phase-locked response to the modulation.[40] The survey authors concluded that ultrasound haptics likely poses minimal risk in most desktop and VR/AR uses, while noting that more research is needed and that another study found the 110 dB limit could be exceeded near users' ears.[1]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 Ismo Rakkolainen, Euan Freeman, Antti Sand, Roope Raisamo, Stephen Brewster (2021). "A Survey of Mid-Air Ultrasound Haptics and Its Applications". IEEE Transactions on Haptics, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 2-19. https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2020.3018754. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Takayuki Iwamoto, Mari Tatezono, Hiroyuki Shinoda (2008). "Non-contact Method for Producing Tactile Sensation Using Airborne Ultrasound". EuroHaptics 2008, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 5024, pp. 504-513. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-69057-3_64. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Arthur Fleig (2025-12-08). "A Retrospective on Ultrasound Mid-Air Haptics in HCI". arXiv (AlpCHI 2026 Revisiting HCI Research Track). https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.07613. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Tom Carter, Sue Ann Seah, Benjamin Long, Bruce Drinkwater, Sriram Subramanian (2013-10-08). "UltraHaptics: Multi-Point Mid-Air Haptic Feedback for Touch Surfaces". Proceedings of the 26th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST '13), pp. 505-514. ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2501988.2502018. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Lendy Mulot, Thomas Howard, Guillaume Gicquel, Claudio Pacchierotti, Maud Marchal (2025-09). "Bimanual Ultrasound Mid-Air Haptics for Virtual Reality Manipulation". IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 31, no. 9, pp. 4821-4832. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2024.3417343. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Takayuki Hoshi, Masafumi Takahashi, Takayuki Iwamoto, Hiroyuki Shinoda (2010-07). "Noncontact Tactile Display Based on Radiation Pressure of Airborne Ultrasound". IEEE Transactions on Haptics, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 155-165. https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2010.4. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  7. ↑ Adam Price, Benjamin Long (2018-10). "Fibonacci Spiral Arranged Ultrasound Phased Array for Mid-Air Haptics". 2018 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium (IUS), pp. 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1109/ULTSYM.2018.8580072. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  8. ↑ Ryoko Takahashi, Keisuke Hasegawa, Hiroyuki Shinoda (2018). "Lateral Modulation of Midair Ultrasound Focus for Intensified Vibrotactile Stimuli". EuroHaptics 2018, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 10894, pp. 276-288. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93399-3_25. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  9. ↑ William Frier, Damien Ablart, Jamie Chilles, Benjamin Long, Marcello Giordano, Marianna Obrist, Sriram Subramanian (2018). "Using Spatiotemporal Modulation to Draw Tactile Patterns in Mid-Air". EuroHaptics 2018, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 270-281. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93445-7_24. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  10. ↑ Graham Wilson, Thomas Carter, Sriram Subramanian, Stephen A. Brewster (2014-04-26). "Perception of Ultrasonic Haptic Feedback on the Hand: Localisation and Apparent Motion". Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '14), pp. 1133-1142. ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2556288.2557033. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Y. Suzuki, M. Kobayashi (2005-01). "Air Jet Driven Force Feedback in Virtual Reality". IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 44-47. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2005.1. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Rajinder Sodhi, Ivan Poupyrev, Matthew Glisson, Ali Israr (2013-07-21). "AIREAL: Interactive Tactile Experiences in Free Air". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 32, no. 4, article 134 (SIGGRAPH 2013). https://doi.org/10.1145/2461912.2462007. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Sidhant Gupta, Dan Morris, Shwetak N. Patel, Desney Tan (2013-09-08). "AirWave: Non-Contact Haptic Feedback Using Air Vortex Rings". Proceedings of the 2013 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp '13), pp. 419-428. https://doi.org/10.1145/2493432.2493463. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "Ultrahaptics raises £35 million". University of Bristol. 2018-12-05. https://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2018/december/ultrahaptics-raises-35million.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Benjamin Long, Sue Ann Seah, Tom Carter, Sriram Subramanian (2014-11-19). "Rendering Volumetric Haptic Shapes in Mid-Air Using Ultrasound". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 33, no. 6, article 181. https://doi.org/10.1145/2661229.2661257. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Antti Sand, Ismo Rakkolainen, Poika Isokoski, Jari Kangas, Roope Raisamo, Karri Palovuori (2015-11-13). "Head-Mounted Display with Mid-Air Tactile Feedback". Proceedings of the 21st ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST '15), pp. 51-58. https://doi.org/10.1145/2821592.2821593. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Jae-Hoon Jun, Jong-Rak Park, Sung-Phil Kim, et al. (2015-06-05). "Laser-induced thermoelastic effects can evoke tactile sensations". Scientific Reports, vol. 5, article 11016. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep11016. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Michael Williams (2018-09-18). "Ultrahaptics announces launch of STRATOS Inspire, a plug-and-play haptic module". rAVe Publications. https://www.ravepubs.com/ultrahaptics-announces-launch-stratos-inspire-plug-play-haptic-module/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Brian Heater (2024-03-01). "Ultraleap is bringing haptic touch to cars and VR headsets". TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2024/03/01/ultraleap-is-bringing-haptic-touch-to-cars-and-vr-headsets. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Ryuji Hirayama, Diego Martinez Plasencia, Nobuyuki Masuda, Sriram Subramanian (2019-11-13). "A volumetric display for visual, tactile and audio presentation using acoustic trapping". Nature, vol. 575, pp. 320-323. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1739-5. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Ultraleap is joining ROLI". ROLI. 2025-11-11. https://roli.com/blog/ultraleap-is-joining-roli. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  22. ↑ Asier Marzo, Tom Corkett, Bruce W. Drinkwater (2018-01). "Ultraino: An Open Phased-Array System for Narrowband Airborne Ultrasound Transmission". IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 102-111. https://doi.org/10.1109/TUFFC.2017.2769399. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  23. ↑ Shun Suzuki, Seki Inoue, Masahiro Fujiwara, Yasutoshi Makino, Hiroyuki Shinoda (2021-10). "AUTD3: Scalable Airborne Ultrasound Tactile Display". IEEE Transactions on Haptics, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 740-749. https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2021.3069976. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  24. ↑ Ivan Poupyrev. "Aireal". Ivan Poupyrev (project page). http://www.ivanpoupyrev.com/project/aireal. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  25. ↑ Yoichi Ochiai, Kota Kumagai, Takayuki Hoshi, Satoshi Hasegawa, Yoshio Hayasaki (2016-05-07). "Cross-Field Aerial Haptics: Rendering Haptic Feedback in Air with Light and Acoustic Fields". Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 3238-3247. ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858489. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  26. ↑ Inwook Hwang, Hyungki Son, Jin Ryong Kim (2017-06). "AirPiano: Enhancing music playing experience in virtual reality with mid-air haptic feedback". 2017 IEEE World Haptics Conference (WHC), pp. 213-218. https://doi.org/10.1109/WHC.2017.7989903. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  27. ↑ Jonatan Martinez, Daniel Griffiths, Valerio Biscione, Orestis Georgiou, Tom Carter (2018-03). "Touchless Haptic Feedback for Supernatural VR Experiences". 2018 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), pp. 629-630. https://doi.org/10.1109/VR.2018.8446522. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  28. ↑ Orestis Georgiou, Craig Jeffrey, Ziyuan Chen, et al. (2018-03). "Touchless Haptic Feedback for VR Rhythm Games". 2018 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), pp. 553-554. https://doi.org/10.1109/VR.2018.8446619. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  29. ↑ Steeven Villa, Sven Mayer, Jess Hartcher-O'Brien, Albrecht Schmidt, Tonja-Katrin Machulla (2022-11-14). "Extended Mid-air Ultrasound Haptics for Virtual Reality". Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 6, ISS, pp. 500-524. https://doi.org/10.1145/3567731. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  30. ↑ Mehrad Faridan, Marcus Friedel, Ryo Suzuki (2022-10-28). "UltraBots: Large-Area Mid-Air Haptics for VR with Robotically Actuated Ultrasound Transducers". Adjunct Proceedings of the 35th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST '22 Adjunct), pp. 1-3. ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3526114.3561350. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  31. ↑ Steeven Villa, Yannick Weiss, Niklas Hirsch, Alexander Wiethoff (2024-09-24). "An Examination of Ultrasound Mid-air Haptics for Enhanced Material and Temperature Perception in Virtual Environments". Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 8, MHCI. https://doi.org/10.1145/3676488. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  32. ↑ Cédric Kervegant, Félix Raymond, Delphine Graeff, Julien Castet (2017-07-30). "Touch Hologram in Mid-Air". ACM SIGGRAPH 2017 Emerging Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1145/3084822.3084824. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  33. ↑ "Emerge Launches its First Product to Bring Physical Touch to the Metaverse". PR Newswire. Emerge. 2022-01-28. https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/emerge-launches-its-first-product-to-bring-physical-touch-to-the-metaverse-301470423.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  34. ↑ Matthias Bastian (2022-03-04). "Meta Quest 2: VR haptics via ultrasound". MIXED. https://mixed-news.com/en/meta-quest-2-vr-haptics-via-ultrasound/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Mike Butcher (2021-11-17). "Ultraleap's mid-air haptics tempts Tencent to join its $82M Series D fundraising". TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2021/11/17/ultraleaps-mid-air-haptics-tempts-tencent-to-join-its-82m-series-d-fundraising. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  36. ↑ Josef Erl (2022-11-05). "Sensing digital objects in the air: Ultraleap introduces new technology". MIXED. https://mixed-news.com/en/sensing-digital-objects-in-the-air-ultraleap-introduces-new-technology/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  37. ↑ Scott Hayden (2024-06-28). "Hand-tracking Pioneer Ultraleap Initiates Layoff Amid Major Restructuring". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/hand-tracking-ultraleap-layoff-2024/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  38. ↑ "Digital worlds that feel human". Ultraleap. https://www.ultraleap.com/haptics/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  39. ↑ Orestis Georgiou, William Frier, Euan Freeman, Claudio Pacchierotti, Takayuki Hoshi (eds.) (2022). "Ultrasound Mid-Air Haptics for Touchless Interfaces". Human-Computer Interaction Series. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04043-6. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  40. ↑ Samuele Carcagno, Andrew Di Battista, Christopher J. Plack (2019-11). "Effects of High-Intensity Airborne Ultrasound Exposure on Behavioural and Electrophysiological Measures of Auditory Function". Acta Acustica united with Acustica, vol. 105, no. 6, pp. 1183-1197. https://doi.org/10.3813/AAA.919395. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
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