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Virtual reality art

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Virtual reality art (also VR art) is art made with, or made to be experienced in, virtual reality. It includes immersive installations in which a visitor wearing a head-mounted display enters a computer-generated environment, paintings and sculptures created inside VR with tools such as Tilt Brush, Open Brush and Quill, and, at its edges, mixed reality and augmented reality works that place virtual artworks in physical space. Tate's glossary defines virtual reality as "a technology that enables a person to interact with a computer-simulated environment, be it based on a real or an imagined place," and its entry on the term lists Cao Fei and Langlands & Bell among the artists in its collection.[1]

The field has research and gallery roots that predate consumer headsets. Brenda Laurel and Rachel Strickland's two-person environment Placeholder was made at the Banff Centre for the Arts in 1993, and Char Davies's Osmose (1995) was navigated by breathing and balance rather than by a hand-held controller.[2][3] The VR painting application Tilt Brush launched for the consumer HTC Vive in April 2016, and VR art platforms, museum installations and festival competitions appeared over the following years.[4] The Venice International Film Festival held its first VR competition in 2017.[5]

Reviewed 6 October 2026. All cited sources reopened; dates, names, quotes, exhibition details and paper metadata (authors, venue, year, DOI via Crossref) checked against them. About review dates.

Definition and scope

In Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion (MIT Press, 2003), art historian Oliver Grau places computer-generated "virtual art" in a much older tradition of illusionistic images meant to immerse the viewer. In his account that tradition runs from the frescoes of classical antiquity to the panoramas of the 19th century. Reviewing the book in Consciousness, Literature and the Arts, Roger Dawkins summarized Grau's position as being that virtual art "is not revolutionary or new, but fits into a tradition of illusion that dates back as far as 60 BC." He also wrote that Grau "is never entirely clear about the implications of immersion," the book's central concept.[6]

In practice the label covers several distinct kinds of work:

  • Immersive environments that the artist builds for a visitor to enter and explore, such as Placeholder, Osmose and later festival works.
  • Art made in VR: strokes painted or volumes sculpted in three-dimensional space with tracked controllers, then viewed in a headset or exported to other media.
  • Museum and gallery VR, in which institutions use headsets to present or reconstruct existing works.
  • Location-based AR and mixed reality art, in which digital pieces are anchored to real places and seen through a smartphone or see-through headset.

Artists have also used shared online virtual worlds as a venue. Tate notes that Cao Fei, who represented China at the 2007 Venice Biennale, "reproduced her exhibition in the Chinese pavilion in Second Life," and that groups such as the Dutch team Art Tower staged exhibitions and sold work there.[1]

How it works

An immersive VR artwork needs a display that surrounds the viewer and tracking that ties the image to the body. Placeholder is a well-documented early example. Its authors describe two physically remote participants wearing Virtual Research head-mounted displays, with Polhemus FastTrak sensors on the head, hands and torso, custom "Grippee" hand controllers, an SGI Onyx Reality Engine for graphics and Crystal River Engineering Convolvotrons for spatialized sound.[7] Artists have also designed their own input methods. In Davies's Osmose and Ephémère, breathing in makes the participant float upward, breathing out makes them sink, and shifting the body's centre of balance changes direction.[3][8]

Painting and sculpting tools turn the motion of a hand-held controller into geometry. The 2001 CavePainting system described its marks as "a 3d analog of 2d brush strokes," made with physical props inside an 8 ft by 8 ft by 8 ft CAVE projection room.[9] Consumer applications work the same way with tracked motion controllers: Road to VR described Tilt Brush in 2015 as letting users "draw in VR using three dimensions, with paint, light, and textures."[10] Because the finished piece exists as three-dimensional data, it can be walked around in the headset, shown in a virtual gallery, or exported.

Location-based AR art usually relies on a smartphone app and geolocation. The work appears on the phone screen only when the viewer stands at the chosen coordinates. Nancy Baker Cahill's Liberty Bell (2020), for example, was viewed through her free 4th Wall app on iOS and Android at specific outdoor sites.[11]

History

Antecedents (1970s-1980s)

Myron Krueger's Videoplace predates head-mounted VR art. The Digital Art Museum calls it "the first installation of its kind" and says it "has been vastly influential in the development of all sorts of interactive installations." It received funding from the National Endowment for the Arts and was shown as a two-way exhibit at the Milwaukee Art Museum in 1975. Participants in two rooms faced a video projection of their own silhouettes, which reacted in real time to their movements and let them interact with virtual objects and with the people in the other room. Krueger's dissertation was published in 1983 under the title Artificial Reality.[12]

Jeffrey Shaw and Dirk Groeneveld's The Legible City (1989) had visitors ride a stationary bicycle through a simulated city made of three-dimensional letters that form words and sentences. The handlebars and pedals controlled direction and speed. The first version represented Manhattan; versions for Amsterdam (1990) and Karlsruhe (1991) followed.[13]

Head-mounted works of the 1990s

Placeholder (1993), made by Brenda Laurel, Rachel Strickland and their collaborators, came out of a collaboration between Interval Research Corporation and the Banff Centre for the Arts.[7][2] Its three environments were based on real places in the Banff area of Alberta: a sulfur hot spring in a cave, a waterfall in Johnston Canyon, and hoodoos above the Bow River. Participants could take on the identity of one of four animated spirit characters (Spider, Snake, Fish and Crow), which changed their appearance, voice, perception and way of moving. They could also leave spoken messages in "voiceholders" for later visitors.[7]

Char Davies made Osmose (1995) and Ephémère (1998). In a 1998 paper she criticized virtual worlds "filled with hard-edged solid objects, horizontal floors and walls" and contrasted them with scuba diving, in which divers "float, free from gravity, using subtleties of breath and balance to ascend and descend."[14] Osmose used a stereoscopic head-mounted display with 3D localized sound and motion-capture devices. In 1996 it was named "Best of '96 - Virtual Reality" by 3D Design and "Best Virtual Reality Art Event of the Year" by CyberEdge Journal. Davies's studio, Immersence, refers to about 25,000 people who have been immersed in it since the summer of 1995.[3] Ephémère premiered at the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa and is arranged in three vertical levels: landscape, earth and interior body.[8] Davies and her collaborator John Harrison described Osmose in ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics in 1996.[15]

At the start of the 2000s, CavePainting brought painting into the CAVE. Its authors reported that artists were "excited about this form of art and the gestural, full-body experience of creating it."[9]

Consumer painting and sculpting tools (2015-2021)

Tilt Brush was created by the studio Skillman & Hackett and won the "Best GUI" award at the 2014 Proto Awards. Google acquired the studio in April 2015.[10] The application launched on SteamVR for the HTC Vive in April 2016 and was later released for the Oculus Rift, Windows Mixed Reality, Valve Index, PlayStation VR and Oculus Quest.[4] In January 2017 Google announced a Tilt Brush Artist in Residence program of more than 60 artists, among them graffiti artists, painters, illustrators, dancers and cartoonists such as Sougwen Chung, Steve Teeple, Alex Hirsch, Peter Chan and Glen Keane. Google said their feedback led to features including new export formats, a media library for importing 3D models, and YouTube export.[16] On 26 January 2021 Google released the Tilt Brush source code under the Apache 2.0 license and said it was no longer an actively developed product.[4] The community fork Open Brush describes itself as "the open source, community led evolution of Tilt Brush."[17]

Quill started as a tool that Iñigo Quilez built during a 2015 hackathon for Oculus Story Studio's short Dear Angelica, which Engadget described as "the first to be hand-painted completely inside of a VR environment." In September 2021 Facebook transferred ownership of Quill to Quilez, who relaunched it through his company Smoothstep.[18] Quilez presented the tool's rendering problems in a talk at SIGGRAPH 2016.[19] Facebook sold its VR sculpting application Medium to Adobe in December 2019.[20]

Galleries, museums and festivals

In June 2017 the platform Acute Art previewed its first VR works at the Brilliant Minds conference in Stockholm, ahead of a launch planned for autumn 2017: Marina Abramović's Rising, about climate change; Jeff Koons's Phryne; and Olafur Eliasson's Rainbow, in which several viewers search for a rainbow hidden by virtual rain.[21] Acute Art describes Rainbow as Eliasson's first virtual reality artwork, "a glittering curtain of softly falling water which, from certain angles, reveals a virtual rainbow."[22]

That September, Chalkroom (also titled La Camera Insabbiata) by Laurie Anderson and Hsin-Chien Huang won Best VR Experience at the 74th Venice International Film Festival, the first edition of the festival to hold a VR competition.[5] In the work the viewer flies through "an enormous structure made of words, drawings and stories." It had already been on view at MASS MoCA in North Adams, Massachusetts, since May 2017.[23] Venice later renamed its section: in 2022 Venice Immersive became "the new name of the Venice VR Expanded section," covering 360-degree video and XR works including installations, live performances and virtual worlds. The 2022 edition was held on the island of Lazzaretto Vecchio.[24] The Sundance Film Festival's New Frontier exhibit, established in 2007, also programmed VR and AR work. Its director and curator Shari Frilot said that, to her knowledge, the exhibit's 2017 Hologram room would be "the first major showing of works engaging with AR headsets in a cultural setting."[25]

Major museums began adding VR to exhibitions in the same period. Tate Modern's Modigliani VR: The Ochre Atelier, made by the studio Preloaded with HTC Vive, reconstructed the painter's last Paris studio inside the Modigliani exhibition (23 November 2017 to 2 April 2018). Tate called it "a first for Tate," a seated experience in a room with nine headsets, and a room-scale home version followed on Viveport in December 2017.[26] The Louvre's first VR experience, Mona Lisa: Beyond the Glass, made with HTC VIVE Arts, was presented as part of the museum's Leonardo da Vinci exhibition (24 October 2019 to 24 February 2020), and a home version was released on Viveport and other VR platforms.[27]

Some venues exist only in VR. The Museum of Other Realities, a social VR museum for PC headsets, entered early access in June 2019 and left it with a 1.0 update in February 2020. At its 1.0 release it featured work by VR artists including Rosie Summers, Kevin Mack, Danny Bittman, Isaac Cohen, Liz Edwards, Nick Ladd and Vladimir Ilic.[28] It cost US$20 at that time, on Steam and Viveport.[28] Its website now says "the paywall is gone" and that it is free to visit on Steam for PC VR headsets.[29]

Augmented and mixed reality art

In October 2017 Snapchat placed geotagged augmented reality versions of Jeff Koons sculptures at landmarks including Central Park in New York, Hyde Park in London and the Sydney Opera House. The artist Sebastian Errazuriz and his studio CrossLab made a graffiti-covered copy of the Central Park Balloon Dog at the same coordinates. When Snapchat did not approve it, they released it in their own app, ARNYC. Errazuriz said "it's important to have this dialogue before our public AR virtual space is entirely dominated by brands."[30]

Nancy Baker Cahill founded 4th Wall, a free AR app for placing art "in 360 degrees anywhere in the world." For the 2019 Desert X biennial in California's Coachella Valley she made two geolocated works: Revolutions, at a wind farm in Palm Springs, and Margin of Error, at the Salton Sea.[31][32] Her Liberty Bell, a 1.5-minute animated AR drawing of a cracked, swaying bell, launched on 4 July 2020 at sites in Philadelphia, Boston, Washington, Charleston, Selma and Rockaway.[11]

Marina Abramović's The Life was shown at the Serpentine Galleries in London from 19 to 24 February 2019. Visitors wore Magic Leap One headsets to see a 19-minute, volumetrically captured digital representation of the artist performing within a roped five-metre circle, while the gallery and other visitors stayed visible. The capture was recorded at 4D Views in France, and the work was produced by Tin Drum, a US and UK mixed reality studio. Serpentine calls it the "first, large-scale performance exhibited using Mixed Reality anywhere in the world."[33]

Notable works

Work Artist(s) Year Form Notes
Videoplace Myron Krueger 1975 (Milwaukee Art Museum exhibit) Camera-based interactive installation Projected silhouettes react to participants' movements[12]
The Legible City Jeffrey Shaw, Dirk Groeneveld 1989; 1990; 1991 Interactive installation with a stationary bicycle Manhattan, Amsterdam and Karlsruhe versions[13]
Placeholder Brenda Laurel, Rachel Strickland 1993 Two-person networked HMD environment Banff Centre for the Arts and Interval Research[7][2]
Osmose Char Davies 1995 HMD with breath-and-balance interface About 25,000 immersants reported by Immersence[3]
Ephémère Char Davies 1998 HMD with breath-and-balance interface Premiered at the National Gallery of Canada[8]
Chalkroom (La Camera Insabbiata) Laurie Anderson, Hsin-Chien Huang 2017 VR Best VR Experience, 74th Venice International Film Festival[5]
Rainbow Olafur Eliasson (Acute Art) 2017 Multi-user VR The artist's first VR work[22]
Rising Marina Abramović (Acute Art) 2017 VR Climate change theme[21]
Balloon Dog (Snapchat AR) Jeff Koons with Snapchat 2017 Geotagged smartphone AR Counter-version by Sebastian Errazuriz in the ARNYC app[30]
The Life Marina Abramović (produced by Tin Drum) 2019 Mixed reality, Magic Leap One Serpentine Galleries, 19 to 24 February 2019[33]
Revolutions; Margin of Error Nancy Baker Cahill 2019 Geolocated AR (4th Wall app) Desert X 2019, Coachella Valley[31]
Liberty Bell Nancy Baker Cahill 2020 Geolocated AR (4th Wall app) Six US cities from 4 July 2020[11]

Research

Academic work related to VR art spans art history, tools for making art, and applications such as therapy. Grau's Virtual Art is a book-length art-historical account that treats VR as the latest stage of a long history of immersive images, and its reviewer in Consciousness, Literature and the Arts questioned how clearly it treats immersion.[6] Artists have also written about their own work in peer-reviewed venues, as in Laurel, Strickland and Tow's 1994 paper on Placeholder and Davies's papers on Osmose.[7][14][15]

In human-computer interaction, research on painting in 3D space began with systems such as CavePainting (2001).[9] A 2017 CHI study by Rahul Arora and colleagues, published through Autodesk Research, found that "the lack of a physical drawing surface is a major cause of inaccuracies in VR drawing," with the effect depending on the orientation of the drawing surface. It also found that visual guides can improve positional accuracy but hurt the aesthetic quality of strokes.[34] The same group's SymbiosisSketch (CHI 2018) combined a Microsoft HoloLens headset with a stylus tablet, so that drawing on the tablet produced 3D strokes in an augmented view.[35][36]

Art-making in VR has also been studied as a form of therapy. A 2023 scoping review in Frontiers in Virtual Reality by Christos Hadjipanayi, Domna Banakou and Despina Michael-Grigoriou analysed 26 publications and found that Google Tilt Brush was the most frequently used software. The reviewers listed advantages such as expanded means of expression and freedom from physical space limits. They also listed drawbacks, including the lack of tactile feedback, the digital literacy required of therapists, and cost.[37]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Virtual reality". Art Terms. Tate. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/v/virtual-reality. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Rachel Strickland. "Placeholder". Spontaneous Cinema. https://spontaneouscinema.com/projects/placeholder/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "Osmose". Immersence. https://www.immersence.com/osmose. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Tim Aidley, Jon Corralejo (2021-01-26). "The future of Tilt Brush". Google Open Source Blog. Google. https://opensource.googleblog.com/2021/01/the-future-of-tilt-brush.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 ""La Camera Insabbiata" Wins Best VR Experience at Venice". Laurie Anderson. 2017-09-10. https://laurieanderson.com/2017/09/10/la-camera-insabbiata-wins-best-vr-experience-at-venice/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Roger Dawkins (2004-12). "Grau, Oliver. Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion (review)". Consciousness, Literature and the Arts, vol. 5, no. 3. http://www.dmd27.org/grau.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Brenda Laurel, Rachel Strickland, Rob Tow (1994-05). "Placeholder: Landscape and Narrative in Virtual Environments". ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 118-126. doi:10.1145/178951.178967. https://www.tauzero.com/Brenda_Laurel/Severed_Heads/CGQ_Placeholder.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Ephémère". Immersence. https://www.immersence.com/ephemere. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Daniel F. Keefe, Daniel Acevedo Feliz, Tomer Moscovich, David H. Laidlaw, Joseph J. LaViola Jr. (2001). "CavePainting: A Fully Immersive 3D Artistic Medium and Interactive Experience". 2001 Symposium on Interactive 3D Graphics (I3D). pp. 85-93. doi:10.1145/364338.364370. https://experts.umn.edu/en/publications/cavepainting-a-fully-immersive-3d-artistic-medium-and-interactive. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Ben Lang (2015-04-16). "Google Acquires 'Tilt Brush' Developer and Thrive Audio to Add to VR Team". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/google-acquires-tilt-brush-developer-and-thrive-audio-to-add-to-vr-team/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 "Nancy Baker Cahill's "Liberty Bell"". Association for Public Art. https://www.associationforpublicart.org/pressroom/nancy-baker-cahill-liberty-bell/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Myron Krueger - VIDEOPLACE, 1975". Digital Art Museum (DAM). https://dam.org/museum/artists_ui/artists/krueger-myron/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "The Legible City". Jeffrey Shaw Compendium. https://www.jeffreyshawcompendium.com/portfolio/legible-city/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Char Davies (1998). "Osmose: Notes on Being in Immersive Virtual Space". Digital Creativity, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 65-74. doi:10.1080/14626269808567111. https://www.immersence.com/publications/char/1998-CD-Digital_Creativity. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Char Davies, John Harrison (1996-11). "Osmose: Towards Broadening the Aesthetics of Virtual Reality". ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 25-28. https://doi.org/10.1145/240806.240808. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  16. ↑ Tory Voight (2017-01-04). "Introducing the Tilt Brush Artist in Residence Program". The Keyword. Google. https://blog.google/products/tilt-brush/introducing-tilt-brush-artist-residence-program/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  17. ↑ "icosa-foundation/open-brush". GitHub. Icosa Foundation. https://github.com/icosa-foundation/open-brush. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  18. ↑ Kris Holt (2021-09-17). "Facebook hands over VR painting and animation app Quill to its creator". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/facebook-quill-vr-illustration-tool-inigo-quilez-181549077.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  19. ↑ Iñigo Quilez (2016). "Rendering challenges in Quill". ACM SIGGRAPH 2016 Talks. doi:10.1145/2897839.2956559. https://doi.org/10.1145/2897839.2956559. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  20. ↑ Alissa McAloon (2019-12-06). "Adobe acquires 3D VR sculpting tool Medium from Facebook". Game Developer. https://gamedeveloper.com/extended-reality/adobe-acquires-3d-vr-sculpting-tool-medium-from-facebook. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Anna Cafolla (2017-06-11). "Marina Abramović & Jeff Koons front new online VR gallery". Dazed. https://www.dazeddigital.com/artsandculture/article/36302/1/marina-abramovic-jeff-koons-front-first-online-vr-gallery. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Olafur Eliasson presents his first virtual reality artwork 'Rainbow'". Acute Art. https://www.acuteart.com/news/olafur-eliasson-presents-his-first-virtual-reality-artwork-rainbow. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  23. ↑ "Chalkroom". Laurie Anderson. https://laurieanderson.com/?portfolio=chalkroom. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  24. ↑ "Venice Immersive". Biennale Cinema 2022. La Biennale di Venezia. https://www.labiennale.org/en/cinema/2022/venice-immersive-0. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  25. ↑ Charles Singletary (2017-01). "Sundance Film Festival's New Frontier Exhibit Puts AR and VR In The Spotlight". UploadVR. https://www.uploadvr.com/sundance-film-festivals-new-frontier-ar-vr/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  26. ↑ "Virtual Reality brings Modigliani's final studio to life". Tate Press Releases. Tate. https://www.tate.org.uk/press/press-releases/virtual-reality-brings-modiglianis-final-studio-life. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  27. ↑ ""Mona Lisa Beyond the Glass": the Louvre's first Virtual Reality experience". Musée du Louvre. https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/life-at-the-museum/mona-lisa-beyond-the-glass-the-louvre-s-first-virtual-reality-experience. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Scott Hayden (2020-02-27). "Mind-bending VR Art Showcase 'Museum of Other Realities' Exits Early Access". Road to VR. https://roadtovr.com/mind-bending-vr-art-showcase-museum-realities-exits-early-access/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  29. ↑ "Museum of Other Realities". Museum of Other Realities. https://www.museumor.com/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Sebastian Errazuriz vandalises AR version of Jeff Koons sculpture". Dezeen. 2017-10-06. https://www.dezeen.com/2017/10/06/sebastian-errazuriz-uses-augmented-reality-to-vandalise-jeff-koons-balloon-dog-sculpture/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Angela Romeo (2019-03-27). "Smart Phone Savvy - Margin Of Error and Revolutions". Coachella Valley Weekly. https://coachellavalleyweekly.com/smart-phone-savvy-margin-of-error-and-revolutions/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  32. ↑ "Desert X Biennial". Nancy Baker Cahill. https://nancybakercahill.com/work/desert-x-biennial-exhibition. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Marina Abramović: The Life". Serpentine Galleries. https://www.serpentinegalleries.org/whats-on/marina-abramovic-life/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  34. ↑ Rahul Arora, Rubaiat Habib Kazi, Fraser Anderson, Tovi Grossman, Karan Singh, George Fitzmaurice (2017-05). "Experimental Evaluation of Sketching on Surfaces in VR". Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 5643-5654. ACM. doi:10.1145/3025453.3025474. https://www.research.autodesk.com/publications/experimental-evaluation-of-sketching-on-surfaces-in-vr/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  35. ↑ Nina Haikara (2018-04-20). "U of T and Autodesk researchers design 2D-3D software for augmented reality drawing". University of Toronto News. https://www.utoronto.ca/news/u-t-and-autodesk-researchers-design-2d-3d-software-augmented-reality-drawing. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  36. ↑ Rahul Arora, Rubaiat Habib Kazi, Tovi Grossman, George Fitzmaurice, Karan Singh (2018). "SymbiosisSketch: Combining 2D & 3D Sketching for Designing Detailed 3D Objects in Situ". 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. doi:10.1145/3173574.3173759. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3173759. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  37. ↑ Christos Hadjipanayi, Domna Banakou, Despina Michael-Grigoriou (2023-02-09). "Art as therapy in virtual reality: A scoping review". Frontiers in Virtual Reality, vol. 4. doi:10.3389/frvir.2023.1065863. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/virtual-reality/articles/10.3389/frvir.2023.1065863/full. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
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