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Nanoimprint lithography

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Nanoimprint lithography (NIL) is a patterning method that forms nanometer-scale structures by pressing a patterned mold, also called a stamp, template or mask, into a resist on a substrate, then hardening the resist and removing the mold. In his 2007 review of the technique, L. Jay Guo describes it as a nonconventional lithographic technique that "relies on direct mechanical deformation of the resist material" rather than on photons or electrons altering the resist, and so "can therefore achieve resolutions beyond the limitations set by light diffraction or beam scattering" that limit conventional methods.[1] Stephen Y. Chou and colleagues at the University of Minnesota introduced the method in 1995.[2][3]

In augmented reality hardware, nanoimprint lithography is the usual volume replication process for the surface relief gratings that couple light into and out of diffractive waveguide combiners. Bernard Kress and Maria Pace wrote in 2022 that such gratings "can be replicated in volumes by nano-imprint, a micro-lithography wafer fabrication technology developed originally for the IC industry".[4] Researchers and equipment makers are also applying the process to metasurfaces and metalenses for AR and VR optics.[5][6]

Reviewed 6 October 2026. Checked bibliographic details and abstracts of all cited papers (Crossref, OpenAlex, Semantic Scholar), the Kress-Pace, Xiong and Kooy full texts, and the Canon, EVG, Magic Leap, Meta, Vuzix 10-K, UT Austin, Princeton, POSTECH and SKKU sources against every claim. About review dates.

How it works

A nanoimprint process starts with a mold that carries the inverse of the desired pattern. The mold is pressed onto a resist-coated substrate, the resist flows into the mold's cavities, and the pattern is fixed in the resist before the mold is lifted away. Because the pattern is reproduced mechanically, many copies can be made from one prefabricated mold.[3] In Chou's original scheme, the imprint creates a thickness contrast in a thin resist film rather than clean openings; an anisotropic etch then removes the thin compressed regions so that the pattern reaches through the whole resist thickness, and the patterned resist can then serve as a template for metal lift-off.[7]

The 2014 review by Kooy and colleagues sorts NIL variants by two features: how the resist is cured, and how the mold contacts the substrate.[3]

Variant How it works Notes
Thermal NIL (hot embossing) The mold is heated above the glass transition temperature of a thermoplastic resist, pressed in until the softened resist fills the cavities, then cooled below that temperature before the mold is lifted The earliest form, introduced by Chou[3]
UV NIL A liquid photopolymer resist is imprinted and cured by ultraviolet exposure, which hardens it by cross-linking Can run at room temperature and lower pressure; avoids thermal-expansion mismatch between mold, substrate and resist[3]
Plate-to-plate A rigid flat stamp, typically a patterned wafer, imprints a flat rigid substrate, either in one step or by repeated steps across the area Single-step imprints of large areas need high forces and can trap air bubbles[3]
Roll-to-plate and roll-to-roll A roller applies the imprint force, so contact is a line rather than the full stamp area; roll-to-roll processes a continuous flexible web Lower imprint force; the review calls roll-to-roll the most demanded variant for industrial throughput[3]

In a 2020 SPIE paper on AR waveguide manufacturing, Christine Thanner and co-authors describe a chain that runs from master to working stamp. They explain that masters are mainly made by sequential processes, so their cost scales with pattern area. For 200 mm and 300 mm wafers, a viable route is to start from a single high-quality device pattern, multiply it by step-and-repeat NIL into a fully populated wafer-scale master, replicate working stamps from that master, and imprint the production wafers with the working stamps.[8] For optical parts, the imprinted layer can often be used directly as the functional layer of the product rather than only as an etch mask.[8]

Canon's semiconductor NIL tools use a drop-dispensed variant. Canon describes three steps: inkjet technology dispenses droplets of liquid resin onto the wafer according to the circuit pattern, a mask embossed with the pattern is pressed into the resist like a stamp, and ultraviolet light solidifies the resin before the mask is removed.[9] Magic Leap uses a related process for AR waveguides that it calls Jet and Flash Imprint Lithography (J-FIL). According to the company, picoliter-sized photoresist droplets are placed on a wafer, a polymer template carrying the waveguide pattern is pressed into the liquid photoresist and cured with UV light, the replicated pattern is transferred into an optical coating on the wafer, and a spin-coated layer creates a smooth optical surface. Magic Leap says it uses a custom-formulated, high-refractive-index photoresist and its own Lithoflex machines.[10]

History

Chou, Peter Krauss and Preston Renstrom of the NanoStructure Laboratory at the University of Minnesota reported the process in Applied Physics Letters in November 1995. They pressed a mold into a thin thermoplastic polymer film to create vias and trenches with a minimum size of 25 nm and a depth of 100 nm, used the imprinted polymer in a lift-off process to make sub-25 nm metal dot arrays with a 100 nm period, and found that the imprinted structures conformed completely to the mold. The authors wrote that the process "has the potential to become a key nanolithography method for future manufacturing of integrated circuits and integrated optics".[2] A Science paper in April 1996 described the method as compression molding followed by anisotropic etching and reported metal patterns with 25 nm features on a 70 nm period.[7] In 1997 the group reported imprinting 10 nm holes on a 40 nm period, a smallest imprinted hole diameter of 6 nm in PMMA, and used imprint lithography to fabricate silicon quantum dot, wire and ring transistors.[11] Chou joined Princeton University's Department of Electrical Engineering in 1998 and later became its Joseph C. Elgin Professor of Engineering.[12]

UV-curing variants appeared soon after. In 1996 Jan Haisma and colleagues at Philips Research in Eindhoven described "mold lithography", a two-step process in which a photopolymerization replication step is followed by wet or dry etching into the substrate, for patterns of 100 nm or less.[13] In 1999 a University of Texas at Austin group including Matthew Colburn, S. V. Sreenivasan and C. Grant Willson presented step and flash imprint lithography (S-FIL) at SPIE.[14] Publications listed by the Willson group, including Colburn's 2001 doctoral thesis, describe S-FIL as a low-pressure, room-temperature nanoimprint process.[15] The related patent, filed by Willson and Colburn in March 1999 and granted in January 2002, describes a method in which a transfer layer is covered with a polymerizable fluid and a mold with a relief structure is pressed into it.[16] Sreenivasan and Willson co-founded Molecular Imprints in Austin in 2001 to commercialize the work.[17] NIL was later added to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors for the 32 nm and 22 nm nodes.[3]

Molecular Imprints was divided by application in 2014 and 2015. Canon, which says it has carried out NIL research and development since 2004, acquired Molecular Imprints' semiconductor imprint lithography equipment business in 2014; that business is now Canon Nanotechnologies.[17][18] The remaining nanomanufacturing business was spun out under the Molecular Imprints name, and the AR company Magic Leap acquired that non-semiconductor portion in 2015.[17][19] Writing in Semiconductor Engineering at the time, Michael Watts suggested that the link lay in Magic Leap's patent filings for multi-scale optical elements, such as zone plates covered with sub-micron diffraction patterns, which imprint can fabricate.[19]

Date Event
November 1995 Chou, Krauss and Renstrom report sub-25 nm thermal imprint in Applied Physics Letters[2]
November 1996 Haisma et al. (Philips Research) describe photopolymerization-based mold lithography[13]
June 1999 University of Texas at Austin group presents step and flash imprint lithography[14]
2001 Molecular Imprints founded in Austin by S. V. Sreenivasan and C. Grant Willson[17]
2014 Canon acquires Molecular Imprints' semiconductor business (now Canon Nanotechnologies)[17][18]
2015 Magic Leap acquires the non-semiconductor portion of Molecular Imprints[19]
July 2017 Canon delivers an FPA-1200NZ2C NIL tool to Toshiba Memory's Yokkaichi plant, which Canon calls significant progress toward semiconductor mass production using NIL[18]
June 2019 EV Group introduces the HERCULES NIL 300 mm system, aimed in part at AR, MR and VR optics[20]
13 October 2023 Canon announces the commercial launch of the FPA-1200NZ2C[5]
September 2024 Canon delivers an FPA-1200NZ2C to the Texas Institute for Electronics[21]

Canon's 2017 release describes its tools as using "field-by-field deposition and exposure of a low viscosity resist deposited by jetting technology".[18] When it announced the commercial launch of the FPA-1200NZ2C in October 2023, Canon stated that the system patterns a minimum linewidth of 14 nm, which it equates to the 5-nm logic node, and that it expects 10 nm linewidths with further mask improvements. The same release names "metalenses for XRs with microstructures of tens of nanometers" as one of the system's applications besides logic and other semiconductor devices.[5] Canon says it became the first company to commercialize a semiconductor manufacturing system using NIL with that launch, and in September 2024 it delivered one to the Texas Institute for Electronics, a semiconductor consortium supported by the University of Texas at Austin.[21]

Applications in VR and AR

Waveguide gratings

Diffractive waveguide combiners, used in AR headsets and smart glasses, carry light from a small display engine through a thin plate by total internal reflection and use gratings to couple it in and out. Kress and Pace give typical periods below 500 nm for visible-light total internal reflection couplers, with features of a few tens of nanometers when multilevel structures are needed. Masters for these gratings are written by direct e-beam lithography, i-line or deep-UV lithography, or interference lithography, and the gratings are then replicated by NIL.[4] Xiong, Hsiang, He, Zhan and Wu, in a 2021 review of AR and VR displays, likewise state that surface relief gratings "are usually replicated by nanoimprint lithography with appropriate heating and surface treatment".[22]

An early demonstration of volume replication for light guides came in 2007, when Tapani Levola and Pasi Laakkonen reported slanted diffractive gratings made on plastic light guides from a high-refractive-index material by UV replication, and showed that such components could be manufactured in large quantities.[23] Xiong et al. cite that work as showing that gratings 300 nm high with slant angles up to 50 degrees can be replicated with high yield.[22] Kress and Pace write that the slanted-grating NIL process "with slants up to 50 deg" has been mastered by many foundries, and that once a master exists, NIL replication is the same no matter how complex the nanostructure modulation is, with caution needed for the undercut shapes of slanted gratings.[4]

In the same paper, Kress and Pace give typical NIL yields for slanted gratings of about 90 percent for refractive indices below 1.8, and "quite lower" yields at 1.9 and 2.0. They note that contract manufacturers use NIL equipment from suppliers such as EVG, Suss and Canon to produce waveguides in volume on plates or wafers, and that moving from wafer-scale to panel-scale fabrication would reduce costs for consumer AR products.[4] Their benchmark of coupler technologies lists NIL on wafers or plates as the fabrication method for slanted surface relief gratings (associated with Microsoft HoloLens, Vuzix and Nokia), blazed and binary gratings (Magic Leap One), multilevel gratings (WaveOptics, BAE and Dispelix) and metasurface couplers.[4]

Equipment makers have targeted this market directly. The Thanner et al. paper states that leading manufacturers of AR devices already use wafer-level NIL and that it is "considered as decisive process step for a number of emerging products, including AR waveguides".[8] In June 2019 EV Group introduced the HERCULES NIL 300 mm, a track system using its SmartNIL UV-NIL process, which it said supports volume manufacturing of structures "down to 40 nm and smaller" and targets optical devices for AR and VR headsets among other uses.[20] In August 2019 EVG and the glass maker SCHOTT announced a partnership to demonstrate 300-mm NIL patterning of high-refractive-index glass wafers used for AR and MR waveguides; according to the release, NIL patterning of glass for photonics had until then been limited to 200-mm substrates.[24] EVG's EVG7300 system, introduced in January 2022, combines NIL with lens molding and lens stacking and lists AR waveguides, meta-lenses and meta-surfaces among its target applications.[25]

Some device makers describe their own NIL production. Vuzix states in its annual report for 2025 that it refines nanoimprinting techniques to produce ultra-thin waveguides, including waveguides down to about 0.35 mm thick, and lists high-index polymers and precision lithography among its areas of expertise.[26] Magic Leap pairs its J-FIL equipment with a plasma etching process and tests finished waveguides with projection systems configured to partners' designs.[27] In July 2026 Magic Leap announced that it was shifting from first-party devices to working as a waveguide supplier and device integration partner, alongside layoffs of 193 employees.[28]

NIL has limits for the highest-index substrates. For the Meta Orion prototype glasses, Meta chose silicon carbide waveguides with slanted gratings etched directly into the material. Meta research manager Nihar Mohanty said that "the whole industry used to rely on nano imprint, which doesn't work for substrates with such a high refractive index", and that Meta's team was the first to do slant etching directly on the devices.[29] Kress and Pace similarly note that replicating gratings in higher-index materials stretches conventional wafer-scale NIL resin chemistry, which adds titanium dioxide or zirconium dioxide nanofiller particles, and suggest imprinting high-index inorganic spin-on glass on panels as a possible alternative.[4]

Metasurfaces and metalenses

Kress and Pace note that binary metasurface structures are easier to replicate by NIL than complex analog surface relief profiles, and that the index contrast they need can come from imprinting directly into high-index inorganic spin-on glass or from NIL resist lift-off after atomic layer deposition.[4]

Several research demonstrations have tied NIL metasurfaces to head-mounted displays. In 2018 Gun-Yeal Lee and colleagues reported a compact near-eye AR display using a see-through metalens eyepiece and demonstrated full-color imaging with a wide field of view using a nanoimprinted large-area metalens.[6] Xiong et al. describe that eyepiece as a centimeter-size geometric-phase metalens with a numerical aperture of about 0.5.[22] In 2020 Gwanho Yoon, Junsuk Rho and co-workers made a visible-light dielectric metalens in a single UV-NIL step by imprinting a composite of UV-curable resin and titanium dioxide nanoparticles, which raised the refractive index while keeping the material imprintable.[30]

A 2023 Nature Materials paper by a team led by Junsuk Rho of POSTECH, working with Korea University and the Research Institute of Industrial Science and Technology, scaled imprinted metalenses up to wafer-level production. The team wrote a single pattern by electron-beam lithography, replicated it with deep-ultraviolet ArF photolithography into a 12-inch master stamp, imprinted 1 cm metalenses from that stamp, and coated them with about 20 nm of titanium dioxide, which POSTECH said raised efficiency to up to 90 percent, compared with around 10 percent for conventional imprinted nanostructures with low refractive indices. The researchers also built lightweight VR devices that displayed red, green and blue images with the lenses.[31][32] A University of Massachusetts Amherst group led by Amir Arbabi reported a 6 mm silicon nitride metalens made by a mask-templating NIL process with a peak focusing efficiency of (81 ± 1) percent at 550 nm, compared with (89 ± 1) percent for an electron-beam-lithography control lens.[33]

Research

Recent work includes faster metalens production and analysis of imprint errors in waveguides. In April 2026 a Sungkyunkwan University and POSTECH team led by Gyoujin Cho, Inki Kim and Junsuk Rho reported in Nature a fully automated roll-to-roll NIL system at the 12-inch scale. It imprints one 12-inch mold every 1.5 seconds, equivalent to 300 metalenses of 1 cm diameter per second, with feature resolution down to 80 nm. The team used flexible polymer replica molds on polyethylene terephthalate foil instead of electroformed nickel shims, coated the lenses with titanium dioxide by atomic layer deposition, and produced 200-meter-long metalens arrays. The university said the throughput is about two orders of magnitude higher than conventional NIL systems; it named imaging, display, sensing and consumer electronics as target uses rather than a specific headset.[34][35]

For waveguides, Chuan Luo, Tianyao Zhang and Yuzuru Takashima published an analytical framework in SPIE conference proceedings in March 2026 linking grating pitch distortion formed during NIL to resolution loss in surface relief grating combiners. They describe high-index polymer gratings made by NIL as particularly promising for mass production, but identify pitch distortion as a critical challenge because it induces wavefront aberration and degrades imaging resolution.[36]

See also

References

  1. ↑ L. J. Guo (2007-01-25). "Nanoimprint Lithography: Methods and Material Requirements". Advanced Materials, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 495-513. doi:10.1002/adma.200600882. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200600882. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Stephen Y. Chou, Peter R. Krauss, Preston J. Renstrom (1995-11-20). "Imprint of sub-25 nm vias and trenches in polymers". Applied Physics Letters, vol. 67, no. 21, pp. 3114-3116. doi:10.1063/1.114851. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.114851. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Nazrin Kooy, Khairudin Mohamed, Lee Tze Pin, Ooi Su Guan (2014-06-25). "A review of roll-to-roll nanoimprint lithography". Nanoscale Research Letters, vol. 9, article 320. doi:10.1186/1556-276X-9-320. https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276X-9-320. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Bernard C. Kress, Maria Pace (2022-08-02). "Holographic optics in planar optical systems for next generation small form factor mixed reality headsets". Light: Advanced Manufacturing, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 771-801. doi:10.37188/lam.2022.042. https://www.light-am.com/article/doi/10.37188/lam.2022.042. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "Nanoimprint lithography semiconductor manufacturing system that covers diverse applications with simple patterning mechanism". Canon Global. Canon Inc.. 2023-10-13. https://global.canon/en/news/2023/20231013.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Gun-Yeal Lee, Jong-Young Hong, SoonHyoung Hwang, Seokil Moon, Hyeokjung Kang, Sohee Jeon et al. (2018-11-01). "Metasurface eyepiece for augmented reality". Nature Communications, vol. 9, article 4562. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07011-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07011-5. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Stephen Y. Chou, Peter R. Krauss, Preston J. Renstrom (1996-04-05). "Imprint Lithography with 25-Nanometer Resolution". Science, vol. 272, no. 5258, pp. 85-87. doi:10.1126/science.272.5258.85. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.272.5258.85. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Christine Thanner, Anna Dudus, Dominik Treiblmayr, Georg Berger, Mustapha Chouiki, Stephan Martens, Michael Jurisch, Julian Harbaum, Martin Eibelhuber (2020-02-19). "Nanoimprint lithography for augmented reality waveguide manufacturing". Proc. SPIE, Optical Architectures for Displays and Sensing in Augmented, Virtual, and Mixed Reality (AR, VR, MR). doi:10.1117/12.2543692. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2543692. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  9. ↑ "As semiconductors evolve, semiconductor production is also moving forward". Canon Global. Canon Inc.. https://global.canon/en/business/group/industry/2024.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  10. ↑ "Jet and Flash Imprint Lithography". Magic Leap. https://www.magicleap.com/jet-and-flash-imprint-lithography. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  11. ↑ Stephen Y. Chou, Peter R. Krauss, Wei Zhang, Lingjie Guo, Lei Zhuang (1997-11-01). "Sub-10 nm imprint lithography and applications". Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 2897-2904. doi:10.1116/1.589752. https://doi.org/10.1116/1.589752. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  12. ↑ John Sullivan (2013-12-11). "Chou Elected to National Academy of Inventors". Princeton Engineering. Princeton University. https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2013/12/11/chou-elected-national-academy-inventors. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Jan Haisma, Martin Verheijen, Kees van den Heuvel, Jan van den Berg (1996-11-01). "Mold-assisted nanolithography: A process for reliable pattern replication". Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 4124-4128. doi:10.1116/1.588604. https://doi.org/10.1116/1.588604. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Matthew Colburn, Stephen C. Johnson, Michael D. Stewart, S. Damle, Todd C. Bailey, Bernard Choi, M. Wedlake, Timothy B. Michaelson, S. V. Sreenivasan, John G. Ekerdt, C. Grant Willson (1999-06-25). "Step and flash imprint lithography: a new approach to high-resolution patterning". Proc. SPIE 3676, Emerging Lithographic Technologies III. doi:10.1117/12.351155. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.351155. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  15. ↑ "Step and Flash Imprint Lithography Publications". Willson Research Group. University of Texas at Austin. https://willson.cm.utexas.edu/Research/Sub_Files/SFIL/Publications/index.htm. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  16. ↑ "US6334960B1 - Step and flash imprint lithography". Google Patents. Board of Regents, The University of Texas System. 2002-01-01. https://patents.google.com/patent/US6334960B1/en. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Cory Leahy (2014-02-17). "Molecular Imprints Acquired by Canon". UT News. University of Texas at Austin. https://news.utexas.edu/2014/02/17/molecular-imprints-acquired-by-canon/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 "Canon provides nanoimprint lithography manufacturing equipment to Toshiba Memory's Yokkaichi Operations plant". Canon Global. Canon Inc.. 2017-07-20. https://global.canon/en/news/2017/20170720.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Michael Watts (2015-07-14). "Molecular Imprints becomes a virtual reality company". Semiconductor Engineering. https://semiengineering.com/molecular-imprints-becomes-a-virtual-reality-company/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "EV Group Brings Nanoimprint Lithography to Full-Scale Production with the First Fully Integrated 300-mm Nanoimprint Lithography Track System". PR Newswire. EV Group. 2019-06-11. https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ev-group-brings-nanoimprint-lithography-to-full-scale-production-with-the-first-fully-integrated-300-mm-nanoimprint-lithography-track-system-300865099.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Canon delivers FPA-1200NZ2C nanoimprint lithography system for semiconductor manufacturing to the Texas Institute for Electronics". Canon Global. Canon Inc.. 2024-09-26. https://global.canon/en/news/2024/20240926.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Jianghao Xiong, En-Lin Hsiang, Ziqian He, Tao Zhan, Shin-Tson Wu (2021-10-25). "Augmented reality and virtual reality displays: emerging technologies and future perspectives". Light: Science & Applications, vol. 10, article 216. doi:10.1038/s41377-021-00658-8. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41377-021-00658-8. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  23. ↑ Tapani Levola, Pasi Laakkonen (2007). "Replicated slanted gratings with a high refractive index material for in and outcoupling of light". Optics Express, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 2067-2074. doi:10.1364/OE.15.002067. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.15.002067. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  24. ↑ "EV Group and SCHOTT Partner to Demonstrate Readiness of 300-mm Nanoimprint Lithography for High-Volume Augmented/Mixed Reality Glass Manufacturing". PR Newswire. EV Group. 2019-08-28. https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ev-group-and-schott-partner-to-demonstrate-readiness-of-300-mm-nanoimprint-lithography-for-high-volume-augmentedmixed-reality-glass-manufacturing-300908193.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  25. ↑ "New multi-functional micro- and nanoimprint solution from EV Group offers unprecedented flexibility for high-volume optical device manufacturing". EV Group. 2022-01-18. https://www.evgroup.com/fileadmin/media/company/news/2022/2022_01_18_EVG_7300/Press_Release_EVG7300_2022_01_EN.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  26. ↑ "Vuzix Corporation Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Vuzix Corporation. 2026. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1463972/000110465926027163/vuzi-20251231x10k.htm. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  27. ↑ "Waveguide Manufacturing". Magic Leap. https://www.magicleap.com/waveguide-manufacturing. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  28. ↑ Scott Hayden (2026-07-20). "Magic Leap Cuts Nearly 200 Jobs as AR Pioneer Pivots Into Waveguide Supplier". Road to VR. https://roadtovr.com/magic-leap-lay-off-2026-waveguide-pivot/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  29. ↑ "Crystal Clear: Our Silicon Carbide Waveguides and the Path to Orion's Large FoV". Meta. Meta Platforms. 2025-03-06. https://www.meta.com/blog/orion-silicon-carbide-waveguides-ar-glasses-large-field-of-view/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  30. ↑ Gwanho Yoon, Kwan Kim, Daihong Huh, Heon Lee, Junsuk Rho (2020-05-08). "Single-step manufacturing of hierarchical dielectric metalens in the visible". Nature Communications, vol. 11, article 2268. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-16136-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16136-5. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  31. ↑ Joohoon Kim, Junhwa Seong, Wonjoong Kim, Gun-Yeal Lee et al. (2023-03-23). "Scalable manufacturing of high-index atomic layer-polymer hybrid metasurfaces for metaphotonics in the visible". Nature Materials, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 474-481. doi:10.1038/s41563-023-01485-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-023-01485-5. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  32. ↑ "World's first mass production of metalenses for visible wavelengths". EurekAlert!. Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH). 2023-05-08. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/988609. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  33. ↑ Andrew McClung, Mahsa Torfeh, Vincent J. Einck, James J. Watkins, Amir Arbabi (2023-12-21). "Visible Metalenses with High Focusing Efficiency Fabricated Using Nanoimprint Lithography". Advanced Optical Materials, vol. 12, no. 9, article 2301865. doi:10.1002/adom.202301865. https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.202301865. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  34. ↑ Trung Hoang, Yujin Park, Joohoon Kim, Han Truong et al. (2026-04-15). "300-unit-per-second roll-to-roll manufacturing of visible metalenses". Nature, vol. 652, no. 8112, pp. 1188-1194. doi:10.1038/s41586-026-10369-y. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-026-10369-y. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  35. ↑ "SKKU Demonstrates Roll-to-roll manufacturing marks a major step toward commercialization of flat optics". EurekAlert!. Sungkyunkwan University. 2026-04-16. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1124476. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  36. ↑ Chuan Luo, Tianyao Zhang, Yuzuru Takashima (2026-03-05). "Impact of nanoimprint lithography distortion-induced grating pitch variation on AR waveguide combiner image resolution". Proc. SPIE, Optical Architectures for Displays and Sensing in Augmented, Virtual, and Mixed Reality (AR, VR, MR) VII. doi:10.1117/12.3078791. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3078791. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
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