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Affective haptics

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Affective haptics is the area of research and engineering concerned with devices and systems that convey, elicit or measure emotion through the sense of touch. Dzmitry Tsetserukou and colleagues described it in 2009 as "the emerging area of research which focuses on the design of devices and systems that can elicit, enhance, or influence on emotional state of a human by means of sense of touch".[1] A 2016 review by Mohamad Eid and Hussein Al Osman in IEEE Access defines it as a field "which focuses on the analysis, design, and evaluation of systems that can capture, process, or display emotions through the sense of touch", drawing on affective computing, haptic technology and user experience research.[2]

The field sits where haptics meets emotion research. Its devices range from wearable hug and heartbeat simulators to vibrotactile sleeves that imitate a caress, thermal elements that change how a virtual conversation partner is perceived, and haptic vests programmed to express emotions. In virtual reality, affective haptics is studied as a way to give avatars and virtual agents a physical, emotional presence. A 2024 study concluded that relying on visual input alone, seeing a virtual touch without feeling it, may not be enough to realize the full benefits of interpersonal touch in VR.[3]

Reviewed 6 October 2026. Definitions, iFeel_IM! device figures, study findings, quotes and bibliographic data checked against the original papers, their abstracts and the cited web pages. About review dates.

Definition and scope

Tsetserukou's group distinguished four "basic haptic (tactile) channels governing our emotions": physiological changes such as heart rate and body temperature, physical stimulation such as tickling, social touch such as a hug, and emotional haptic design, meaning the shape, material and texture of the device itself.[1] Eid and Al Osman distinguish haptic-based affect display, in which a device presents or induces an emotion, from haptic-based affect detection, in which a system infers a person's emotional state through touch. Their review concluded that affect display "is a well-established subject" while affect detection "remains an understudied topic".[2]

Affective haptics overlaps with mediated social touch, the transmission of touches such as handshakes, pats and hugs between people at a distance, which is also discussed under telehaptics. The two are not identical: an affective haptic device may induce an emotion with no human sender at all (for example a simulated heartbeat or a warm surface during a virtual conversation), and a social touch link may carry touches whose purpose is not emotional.[1][4]

Physiological basis

Psychology experiments show that touch alone can carry specific emotions. In a 2006 study in Emotion, Matthew Hertenstein, Dacher Keltner and colleagues had strangers touch participants on the arm without being seen; participants in the United States and Spain decoded anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude and sympathy at "much-better-than-chance levels".[5]

Neuroscience has also identified a dedicated pathway for pleasant touch. Vallbo, Olausson, Wessberg and Norrsell reported in 1993 that touch-sensitive afferents with unmyelinated (C) fibres are "quite common and widespread in the hairy skin of human subjects", contrary to the earlier view that humans lacked them.[6] In 2002 Olausson and colleagues studied a patient lacking large myelinated afferents and found that activating these C-tactile (CT) afferents produced "a faint sensation of pleasant touch" and activated the insular cortex rather than the primary and secondary somatosensory areas; they proposed CT afferents as "a system for limbic touch" underlying responses to caress-like skin contact.[7]

A 2009 study by Line Löken and colleagues in Nature Neuroscience found that CT afferents responded most vigorously to soft brush stroking at intermediate velocities of 1 to 10 cm/s, the same speeds participants rated as most pleasant, and concluded that the afferents "constitute a privileged peripheral pathway for pleasant tactile stimulation".[8] CT afferents are present in hairy skin but not in glabrous (hairless) skin; patients with reduced C-fibre density rated slow arm stroking as less pleasant than controls did.[9] In a 2014 review in Neuron, Francis McGlone, Wessberg and Olausson proposed that these low-threshold mechanosensitive C fibres "represent the neurobiological substrate for the affective and rewarding properties of touch", as distinct from the well-recognized discriminative input of touch.[10]

These findings inform device design. Several VR studies and devices target the hairy skin of the forearm or back with slow stroking; the 2024 VR study by Sun, Slater, Fairhurst and colleagues, for example, stroked the forearm or back at what the authors called a C-tactile optimal speed, citing Löken and colleagues.[11][12]

History

Early systems for sending touch between people predate the term. Tsetserukou and colleagues cite "The Hug" by DiSalvo et al., a pillow that, when squeezed, produced vibration and temperature changes in a partner's device; they criticized it for producing only slight pressure and for lacking any visual representation of the partner.[1] CuteCircuit dates its HugShirt to 2002. The shirt places actuators in the fabric to recreate the sensation of a hug sent from another person's phone.[13] Time included it in its Best Inventions of 2006, describing a Bluetooth-connected garment meant to replicate a sender's "warmth, pressure, duration and even heartbeat".[14] Antal Haans and Wijnand IJsselsteijn published a review of mediated social touch in the journal Virtual Reality in 2006.[15]

In 2007 Jeremy Bailenson and colleagues at Stanford University studied what they called virtual interpersonal touch, "people touching one another via force-feedback haptic devices", as a way to add emotional warmth to collaborative virtual environments. Participants used a two-degree-of-freedom Immersion Impulse Engine 2000 force-feedback joystick to express seven emotions (anger, disgust, joy, fear, interest, sadness and surprise). A second group recognized the recorded emotions correctly on 33.04% of trials, above the 14.29% chance level; pairs who expressed the same emotions through real handshakes reached 50.77%.[16]

At the 2009 World Haptics Conference, researchers at Philips Research presented a body-conforming tactile jacket that delivered movie-specific touch stimuli "specifically targeted to influence the viewer's emotions", evaluated with questionnaires and physiological measurements.[17] The same year, Tsetserukou, Alena Neviarouskaya, Helmut Prendinger, Naoki Kawakami and Susumu Tachi presented the iFeel_IM! system at the ACII 2009 conference under the title "Affective haptics in emotional communication".[1] A Toyohashi University of Technology newsletter credits Tsetserukou and Neviarouskaya with creating the research field.[18]

iFeel_IM!

iFeel_IM! ("intelligent system for Feeling enhancement powered by affect sensitive Instant Messenger") linked text chat in the 3D virtual world Second Life to garments worn by the user. An object called EmoHeart attached to each avatar's chest sent every chat message to a server running the Affect Analysis Model, which recognized nine emotions in text (anger, disgust, fear, guilt, interest, joy, sadness, shame and surprise). The avatar's facial expression and the EmoHeart texture showed the detected emotion, and a controller on the user's PC drove the haptic devices through a digital-to-analog converter and driver box.[1] The authors reported accuracy of 72.6% for the text analyzer on sentences where two or three human raters fully agreed, and 81.5% where all three agreed.[1]

Affective haptic devices in iFeel_IM! (2009)[1]
Device Mechanism Intended effect
HaptiHug Two oppositely rotating motors in a chest holder tighten a belt, pressing rubber-sponge "Soft Hands" against the back and the holder against the chest Simulated hug and sense of physical co-presence
HaptiHeart Flat speaker (FPS 0304, 66.5 x 107 x 8 mm, 10 W rated input) in a heart-shaped case plays pre-recorded low-frequency heartbeat patterns against the chest Heartbeat patterns associated with emotions such as anger, fear and sadness
HaptiButterfly Arrays of vibration motors on the abdomen, using circular and spiral patterns Joy ("butterflies in the stomach")
HaptiTickler Four vibration motors on the ribs, activated at random to imitate fingers tickling Joy, evoked directly
HaptiShiver Row of vibration motors along the spine Fear ("shivers down the spine")
HaptiTemper DC fan and Peltier element giving cold airflow, or warmth on the skin Fear (chills); warmth for a pleasant feeling or anger

HaptiHug set three hug levels from emoticons and keywords in the chat: 200 N/m2 for 2 seconds, 300 N/m2 for 3 seconds and 450 N/m2 for 4 seconds. Each Soft Hand was cut in the outline of a male hand with a front-face area of 155.6 cm2, and the hug was paired with a hugging animation of the two avatars.[1] The authors grouped the devices into those that elicit emotion implicitly (HaptiHeart, HaptiButterfly, HaptiTemper, HaptiShiver), one that evokes it directly (HaptiTickler) and one that uses social touch (HaptiHug).[1] The system was described at CHI 2010 and in IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications in 2010.[19][20] According to the Toyohashi newsletter, it was exhibited at Intetain 2009, ACII 2009, Asiagraph 2009 and CHI 2010, and more than 400 people tried it.[18]

Techniques

Pressure and compression. Squeezing the torso, as HaptiHug does with a motor-tensioned belt, reproduces the pressure pattern of a hug; Tsetserukou's group criticized The Hug because its vibration actuators generated only slight pressure.[1]

Vibrotactile stroking. Arrays of vibration motors can create the illusion of continuous motion across the skin, which researchers use to imitate a caress. In a 2018 study, Ali Israr and Freddy Abnousi of Facebook built a wearable forearm array that produced illusory strokes; low-frequency (below 40 Hz), low-amplitude strokes were felt as pleasant, while high-frequency strokes were unpleasant. The authors presented the results as useful for enhancing "social presence among individuals in virtual and augmented settings".[21] A Technische Universität Dresden team built a 4 x 2 vibrotactile armband that uses the phantom illusion to render stroking patterns in VR. They aimed for touch that is plausible to the user rather than physically authentic, and found that vibration duration and signal shape had the greatest effect on plausibility.[12] The earlier TaSST (Tactile Sleeve for Social Touch) from the University of Twente paired a 4 x 3 grid of touch-sensitive compartments with a 4 x 3 grid of vibration motors so that two people could exchange touches; its first evaluation found it suited mainly to protracted touches such as pressing and simple ones such as poking.[22]

Force feedback. Bailenson's virtual interpersonal touch experiments transmitted emotion through the forces and movements of a grounded force-feedback joystick rather than through skin stimulation.[16]

Mid-air haptics. Marianna Obrist and colleagues, including co-authors from Ultrahaptics, reported at CHI 2015 that emotions such as happy, sad, excited and afraid could be mapped to mid-air tactile patterns: haptic descriptions created by one group of users were reviewed and validated by two other groups, showing what the authors called a "non-arbitrary mapping between emotions and haptic descriptions".[23]

Thermal feedback. Temperature is used because people associate it with emotion; iFeel_IM! used a Peltier element for chills and warmth.[1] At ISMAR 2024, Jeanne Hecquard and colleagues from Inria, CNRS and the University of Rennes had participants in a virtual meeting room listen to a virtual agent for three minutes while resting two fingers on a Peltier module set to cool (26.0 +/- 2.3 degrees C), warm (38.5 +/- 2.7 degrees C) or neutral (32.0 +/- 0.5 degrees C). Warm feedback improved participants' perception of the agent and increased persuasion; in a second study warmth was perceived as more friendly, while combining warmth with vibration increased the agent's perceived presence and persuasion.[24]

Vibrotactile vests. Aviv Elor, Asiiah Song and Sri Kurniawan asked 40 young adults to design haptic vest vibration patterns expressing five emotion groups, then piloted the patterns in an immersive VR experience.[25]

Applications in VR and AR

Social VR and avatars. Touch between avatars is one of the main targets. A 2024 systematic review in Virtual Reality by Giulio Jacucci and colleagues covered a decade of studies on social touch between human avatars and between humans and virtual agents. It noted that haptics in virtual spaces "enables people to communicate emotions", and it called for in-the-wild studies and attention to emerging issues in social VR.[26] In a 2022 review in Frontiers in Psychology, Letizia Della Longa, Irene Valori and Teresa Farroni argued that interpersonal affective touch could promote co-presence and social connection in virtual exchanges and help counter feelings of "sensory loneliness".[27]

Embodied caress experiments. In the 2024 study by Sun, Mel Slater, Fairhurst and colleagues, 58 adults wearing an HTC Vive Pro 2 headset embodied a gender-matched avatar while a female virtual agent stroked their forearm or back. In the visuo-tactile condition, an experimenter delivered synchronous real strokes; in the visual-only condition there was no physical touch.[11] The authors concluded that "to experience the advantages of touch in immersive virtual worlds, it is essential to incorporate haptic feedback", and that a less ambiguous setting (a physiotherapy room with a physiotherapist) did not, contrary to their hypothesis, make the touch more pleasant.[3]

Virtual agents. Affective haptics also runs in the other direction, measuring emotion from how users touch. In a study in IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, participants held a pressure-sensing tube presented as a virtual agent's arm in VR and briefly squeezed it when the agent's facial expression changed; the agent's emotional expression affected squeeze intensity and duration, which the authors proposed as an implicit measure of users' experience of a virtual companion.[28]

Industry research. Researchers at Facebook Reality Labs Research surveyed 258 US respondents about mediated social touch, noting that direct contact is not always possible when people are remote or "interacting in a virtual environment", and reported which interactions and device features respondents wanted.[29][30]

Media and entertainment. Besides the Philips movie jacket, the Toyohashi newsletter lists affective and collaborative games, mood modulation based on physiological signals, the treatment of depression and anxiety, and psychological testing as possible applications that came up in discussions at the iFeel_IM! exhibitions.[17][18]

Research findings and open problems

Eid and Al Osman's 2016 review reached four main conclusions: haptic stimulation can raise emotional immersion during media consumption and emotional telepresence; haptics is effective at communicating valence and arousal and the emotions of happiness, sadness, anger and fear, with less work on disgust and surprise; haptic affect detection is understudied compared with affect display; and "the interpretation of the haptic stimulation by human beings is highly contextual".[2] Gijs Huisman's 2017 survey in IEEE Transactions on Haptics found that research on technology-mediated social touch has reported effects similar to those of actual social touch, and stressed the role of stimulus qualities, multimodal cues and context.[4]

Fidelity remains a limit. Bailenson's participants recognized emotions through a force-feedback joystick well above chance, but less accurately than through real handshakes.[16] The Dresden group noted that physically accurate reproduction of affective touch patterns on the forearm "is limited by actuator technology", which is why it pursued plausible rather than authentic rendering.[12]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 Dzmitry Tsetserukou, Alena Neviarouskaya, Helmut Prendinger, Naoki Kawakami, Susumu Tachi (2009-09). "Affective haptics in emotional communication". 2009 3rd International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction and Workshops (ACII 2009), pp. 1-6. IEEE. doi:10.1109/ACII.2009.5349516. https://tachilab.org/content/files/publication/ic/tsetserukou%20200909ACII.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Mohamad A. Eid, Hussein Al Osman (2016). "Affective Haptics: Current Research and Future Directions". IEEE Access, vol. 4, pp. 26-40. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2015.2497316. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Wenhan Sun, Domna Banakou, Justyna Świdrak, Irene Valori, Mel Slater, Merle T. Fairhurst (2024-10-18). "Multisensory experiences of affective touch in virtual reality enhance engagement, body ownership, pleasantness, and arousal modulation". Virtual Reality, vol. 28, no. 4, article 162. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-024-01056-2. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Gijs Huisman (2017). "Social Touch Technology: A Survey of Haptic Technology for Social Touch". IEEE Transactions on Haptics, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 391-408. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2017.2650221. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  5. ↑ Matthew J. Hertenstein, Dacher Keltner, Betsy App, Brittany A. Bulleit, Ariane R. Jaskolka (2006). "Touch communicates distinct emotions". Emotion, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 528-533. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.528. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  6. ↑ A. Vallbo, H. Olausson, J. Wessberg, U. Norrsell (1993-11-19). "A system of unmyelinated afferents for innocuous mechanoreception in the human skin". Brain Research, vol. 628, no. 1-2, pp. 301-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(93)90968-s. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  7. ↑ H. Olausson, Y. Lamarre, H. Backlund, C. Morin, B. G. Wallin, G. Starck, S. Ekholm, I. Strigo, K. Worsley, A. B. Vallbo, M. C. Bushnell (2002-09). "Unmyelinated tactile afferents signal touch and project to insular cortex". Nature Neuroscience, vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 900-904. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn896. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  8. ↑ Line S. Löken, Johan Wessberg, India Morrison, Francis McGlone, Håkan Olausson (2009-04-12). "Coding of pleasant touch by unmyelinated afferents in humans". Nature Neuroscience, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 547-548. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2312. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  9. ↑ India Morrison, Line S. Löken, Jan Minde, Johan Wessberg, Irene Perini, Inger Nennesmo, Håkan Olausson (2011). "Reduced C-afferent fibre density affects perceived pleasantness and empathy for touch". Brain, vol. 134, no. 4, pp. 1116-1126. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awr011. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  10. ↑ Francis McGlone, Johan Wessberg, Håkan Olausson (2014-05-21). "Discriminative and affective touch: sensing and feeling". Neuron, vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 737-755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.001. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Wenhan Sun, Domna Banakou, Justyna Świdrak, Irene Valori, Mel Slater, Merle Fairhurst (2023-12-28). "Multisensory experiences of affective touch in virtual reality enhance engagement, body ownership, perceived pleasantness, and arousal modulation (manuscript)". Zenodo. https://zenodo.org/records/10438718. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Robert Kirchner, Robert Rosenkranz, Brais Gonzalez Sousa, Shu-Chen Li, M. Ercan Altinsoy (2024). "Phantom Illusion Based Vibrotactile Rendering of Affective Touch Patterns". IEEE Transactions on Haptics, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 202-215. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2023.3315964. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  13. ↑ "HugShirt". CuteCircuit. https://cutecircuit.com/hugshirt/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  14. ↑ "Amazing Embrace". Time, Best Inventions of 2006. 2006. https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1939342_1939424_1939709,00.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  15. ↑ Antal Haans, Wijnand IJsselsteijn (2006). "Mediated social touch: a review of current research and future directions". Virtual Reality, vol. 9, no. 2-3, pp. 149-159. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-005-0014-2. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Jeremy N. Bailenson, Nick Yee, Scott Brave, Dan Merget, David Koslow (2007). "Virtual Interpersonal Touch: Expressing and Recognizing Emotions Through Haptic Devices". Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 22, pp. 325-353. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://vhil.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj29011/files/media/file/bailenson-interpersonal-touch.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Paul M. C. Lemmens, Floris M. H. Crompvoets, Dirk Brokken, Jack van den Eerenbeemd, Gert-Jan de Vries (2009-03). "A body-conforming tactile jacket to enrich movie viewing". World Haptics 2009, Third Joint EuroHaptics Conference and Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems, pp. 7-12. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/WHC.2009.4810832. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 "Affective Haptics: Emotional real-time messaging". Toyohashi University of Technology e-Newsletter. Toyohashi University of Technology. https://www.tut.ac.jp/english/newsletter/archive/no1/research_highlights/research01.html. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  19. ↑ Dzmitry Tsetserukou, Alena Neviarouskaya, Helmut Prendinger, Mitsuru Ishizuka, Susumu Tachi (2010-04-10). "iFeel_IM: innovative real-time communication system with rich emotional and haptic channels". CHI '10 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 3031-3036. ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/1753846.1753911. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  20. ↑ Dzmitry Tsetserukou, Alena Neviarouskaya (2010). "iFeel_IM!: Augmenting Emotions during Online Communication". IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 72-80. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2010.88. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  21. ↑ Ali Israr, Freddy Abnousi (2018-04-20). "Towards Pleasant Touch: Vibrotactile Grids for Social Touch Interactions". Extended Abstracts of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1-6. ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3170427.3188546. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  22. ↑ Gijs Huisman, Aduén Darriba Frederiks, Betsy Van Dijk, Dirk Heylen, Ben Kröse (2013-04). "The TaSSt: Tactile sleeve for social touch". 2013 World Haptics Conference (WHC), pp. 211-216. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/WHC.2013.6548410. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  23. ↑ Marianna Obrist, Sriram Subramanian, Elia Gatti, Benjamin Long, Thomas Carter (2015-04-18). "Emotions Mediated Through Mid-Air Haptics". Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '15), pp. 2053-2062. ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2702123.2702361. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  24. ↑ Jeanne Hecquard, Justine Saint-Aubert, Ferran Argelaguet, Claudio Pacchierotti, Anatole Lécuyer, Marc J.-M. Macé (2024-10). "Warm regards: Influence of thermal haptic feedback during social interactions in VR". 2024 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), pp. 1216-1225. IEEE. doi:10.1109/ISMAR62088.2024.00138. https://hal.science/hal-04680330/document. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  25. ↑ Aviv Elor, Asiiah Song, Sri Kurniawan (2021-03). "Understanding Emotional Expression with Haptic Feedback Vest Patterns and Immersive Virtual Reality". 2021 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW), pp. 183-188. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/VRW52623.2021.00041. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  26. ↑ Giulio Jacucci, Andrea Bellucci, Imtiaj Ahmed, Ville Johannes Harjunen, Michiel Spapé, Niklas Ravaja (2024-11-14). "Haptics in social interaction with agents and avatars in virtual reality: a systematic review". Virtual Reality, vol. 28, no. 4, article 170. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-024-01060-6. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  27. ↑ Letizia Della Longa, Irene Valori, Teresa Farroni (2022-01-11). "Interpersonal Affective Touch in a Virtual World: Feeling the Social Presence of Others to Overcome Loneliness". Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 12, article 795283. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.795283. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  28. ↑ Imtiaj Ahmed, Ville Johannes Harjunen, Giulio Jacucci, Niklas Ravaja, Tuukka Ruotsalo, Michiel M. Spapé (2023). "Touching Virtual Humans: Haptic Responses Reveal the Emotional Impact of Affective Agents". IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 331-342. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAFFC.2020.3038137. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  29. ↑ Carine Rognon, Taylor Bunge, Meiyuzi Gao, Chip Conor, Benjamin Stephens-Fripp, Casey Brown, Ali Israr (2022). "An Online Survey on the Perception of Mediated Social Touch Interaction and Device Design". IEEE Transactions on Haptics, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 372-381. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2022.3141339. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  30. ↑ Carine Rognon et al. (2021-03-31). "An Online Survey on the Perception of Mediated Social Touch Interaction and Device Design (preprint)". arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.00086. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
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