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Virtual production

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Virtual production (VP) is a set of film and television production methods that combine real-time computer graphics, usually rendered by a game engine, with live-action shooting, so that cast and crew can see and adjust digital sets, characters and effects while a scene is being planned or filmed instead of waiting for post-production. The Virtual Production Glossary, a reference compiled by the Visual Effects Society (VES) and the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC) with industry contributors, defines it as the use of technology "to join the digital world with the physical world in real-time", and lists world capture, visualization (previs, techvis and postvis), performance capture, simulcam and in-camera visual effects (ICVFX) as examples.[1][2]

The term covers several distinct techniques. One widely publicized form is the LED volume, a stage lined with LED video panels that show a real-time rendered environment behind the actors and redraw it from the tracked position of the camera, so that the background and much of the lighting are captured in camera. Industrial Light & Magic publicly detailed the StageCraft volume it built for the first season of The Mandalorian in February 2020.[3] Virtual production draws directly on virtual reality hardware and software: directors and cinematographers scout digital sets in head-mounted displays, consumer VR tracking systems are used to track cameras, and simulcam previews, which composite virtual elements with the live camera image, are cross-referenced to augmented reality in the Virtual Production Glossary.[4][5]

Reviewed 4 October 2026. Definitions, history, Mandalorian stage specifications, VR scouting and tracking claims and paper metadata checked against the cited sources and Crossref. About review dates.

Definition

There is no single fixed definition. Epic Games' Virtual Production Field Guide (2019), written by Noah Kadner, calls virtual production "a broad term referring to a spectrum of computer-aided production and visualization filmmaking methods", and quotes two visual effects companies: Weta Digital ("Virtual production is where the physical and digital worlds meet") and the Moving Picture Company (MPC), which said that VP "combines virtual and augmented reality with CGI and game-engine technologies to enable production crews to see their scenes unfold as they are composed and captured on set."[6] In a 2024 research agenda for the field, Jon Swords and Nina Willment of the University of York describe it in broad terms as a way of making film and television that uses computer-generated content allowing "real-time visualisation and control of the digital environment in which you are shooting", and note that the field is changing so quickly that "pinning down what virtual production is, or might become, is a challenge in itself."[4]

The Field Guide sorts the methods into four types, all sharing a real-time engine:[6]

Type What it involves
Visualization Prototype imagery that conveys the creative intent of a shot or sequence: pitchvis, previs, virtual scouting, techvis, stuntvis and postvis
Performance capture Recording actors' body and facial movement to animate digital characters, either on a traditional set with simulcam previews or on a dedicated capture stage called a volume
Hybrid virtual production Camera tracking used to composite green screen footage with CG elements, either as a live preview finished in post-production or as final imagery
Live LED wall in-camera production Real-time engine output shown on an LED wall, combined with camera tracking, to capture final imagery in camera

Swords and Willment group current practice into three overarching approaches: live-action blue or green screen shoots with real-time previews, as on The Jungle Book; filming entirely inside virtual worlds, as on The Lion King (2019); and LED volumes, as on The Mandalorian.[4] The Virtual Production Glossary defines in-camera visual effects as "the process of capturing visual effects live and in-camera on set, such as within an LED volume."[7]

History

Precursors

Projecting imagery behind actors to photograph effects in camera is much older than digital VP. The Field Guide notes that rear projection with film projectors dates to the 1930s and was regularly used for driving shots, but that it had a fixed perspective which shots had to be planned around.[6] Swords and Willment describe LED volumes as a progression from rear projection, with higher fidelity imagery, editable scenery and camera tracking added.[4]

By the late 1990s real-time virtual sets were in common use in broadcast television. In a 1998 overview in IEEE MultiMedia, Gibbs and colleagues described how virtual studio systems began as experimental prototypes that extended traditional chroma keying and became commercial products, built on graphics supercomputers, in common use for broadcast production.[8] The Field Guide traces real-time green screen compositing to broadcast weather reports and cites the Unreal Engine based Zero Density system as a later example used by broadcasters such as FOX Sports, Canal+, RTL, TF1 and Sky News.[6]

The lighting side of the LED volume has an academic origin. At SIGGRAPH 2002, Paul Debevec and colleagues presented Light Stage 3, "a two-meter sphere of inward-pointing RGB light emitting diodes focused on the actor", in which each light could be set to any color and intensity to reproduce a real or virtual lighting environment while an infrared matting system separated the actor from the background.[9] The device used 156 RGB LED lights. Debevec's project page states that the paper anticipated an ideal stage in which the LEDs were packed so closely that "the light stage becomes a omnidirectional display device, presenting a panoramic image of the environment to the actor", and describes it as "a key component of the virtual production LED stages now being built worldwide." Light Stage 3 is now in the collection of the Academy Museum of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.[10]

Performance capture and virtual cameras

According to the Field Guide, filmmakers including George Lucas, Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson, Robert Zemeckis and James Cameron were early adopters of virtual production enhanced by real-time rendering, and in 2009 members of the ASC, ADG, PGA, ICG and VES formed a Virtual Production Committee that shared case studies and produced many of the field's early definitions.[6] On Cameron's Avatar (2009), described by American Cinematographer, the director used a handheld virtual camera, "essentially a monitor with video-game-style controls on it whose position was tracked in space", to see performance-capture actors as their CG characters in real time. Virtual production supervisor Glenn Derry devised a system that composited the motion-capture data into the CG world live, and the Simulcam "superimposed the CG world and characters into the live-action photography by tracking the position of the live-action camera."[11] Swords and Willment treat Cameron's approach on Avatar as a precursor of current virtual production.[4]

VR filmmaking on The Lion King

Jon Favreau's The Jungle Book (2016) was shot with the actor playing Mowgli on a blue screen stage. Pre-visualized environments and block-animated characters were played back in real time so that cast and crew could see them on monitors, and a simulcam setup synchronized with the virtual environment let the director choose camera positions.[4] Favreau's The Lion King (2019) was filmed entirely within a virtual world: although every shot was computer-generated, it was staged like a live-action film inside VR. The Moving Picture Company built the tools and used Unity to emulate live-action production in VR, and cinematographer Caleb Deschanel lined up shots wearing an HTC Vive.[12] Engadget reported that Favreau, Deschanel and visual effects supervisor Rob Legato worked from a facility in Playa Vista, Los Angeles, where they wore HTC Vive headsets to explore the virtual world, and that HTC Vive, OptiTrack sensors and US Digital encoders let the crew use and track conventional camera equipment, including Steadicam stabilizers, cranes and wheeled dollies.[13] fxguide reported that the Magnopus team led by Ben Grossmann designed the virtual production system under Legato's supervision, that it ran a modified Unity in editor mode, and that the crew "did not need to wear VR headgear, although they often did", since most information was also shown on monitors.[14] Favreau likened the process to a "multiplayer filmmaking game".[12] Legato told Cinema Blend, as reported by UploadVR, that the VR approach is "definitely here to stay".[15]

The Mandalorian and StageCraft

On 20 February 2020, Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) and Epic Games, with partners Fuse, Lux Machina, Profile Studios, NVIDIA and ARRI and Favreau's Golem Creations, described the LED stage built for The Mandalorian. ILM said that over 50 percent of the first season was filmed with the method, "eliminating the need for location shoots entirely", and that the environments were rendered with NVIDIA GPUs "from the perspective of the camera to provide parallax in real-time".[3] Unreal Engine provided the real-time 3D environment for the first season.[16] The first season's stage, as described by American Cinematographer and ILM, was built as follows:

Element Specification
LED wall Curved, 20 ft high by 180 ft in circumference, forming a 270 degree semicircle[16]
Panels 1,326 individual LED screens with a 2.84 mm pixel pitch[16]
Performance space 75 ft in diameter, under an LED video ceiling[16][3]
Rear of stage Two flat panels, 18 ft high by 20 ft wide, of 132 further LED screens covering the remaining 90 degrees[16]
Camera tracking Profile Studios' motion-capture system, using infrared cameras to follow IR markers on the production camera[16]
Rendering 11 interlinked computers: three dedicated to real-time rendering, and four servers providing three 4K images side by side on the wall and one 4K image on the ceiling[16]
Camera ARRI Alexa LF with Panavision Ultra Vista 1.65x anamorphic lenses[16]

ILM says its research and development team has focused on virtual production for two decades, and describes StageCraft as "an end-to-end solution supporting all aspects of virtual production", covering LED volumes, performance capture and facial capture.[17] For the second season ILM developed its own real-time renderer, Helios, while Unreal Engine 4 remained in use by all departments for previsualization, including the virtual art department, which also used VR for scouting and department-head reviews.[18] A 2023 DigiPro paper by Stephen Hill and Jeroen Schulte described StageCraft as a suite that "incorporates powerful off-the-shelf systems, such as Unreal, with proprietary solutions".[19]

In September 2021 The Mandalorian won the Primetime Creative Arts Emmy for special visual effects for its second season, the second year in a row that the series received that award.[20] In July 2022 StageCraft was named a recipient of a 74th Engineering, Science and Technology Emmy Award; ILM's announcement listed The Book of Boba Fett, How I Met Your Father, Obi-Wan Kenobi and The Old Man among the productions that had used it.[21] The market research firm Futuresource Consulting counted a global installed base of 200 LED ICVFX volumes at the end of 2023 and forecast growth led by smaller and medium-sized facilities.[22]

How LED volume production works

An LED volume needs three linked systems: a real-time engine that renders the environment, an array of LED panels that displays it, and a camera tracking system that reports where the camera is so that the engine can redraw the scene with correct perspective and parallax.[4] Swords and Willment note that software for synchronizing multi-projector displays and auto-alignment in aviation and military flight simulators was adapted for this purpose, and that many LED suppliers came to virtual production from the live events business, some during the COVID-19 pandemic.[4]

In Unreal Engine's ICVFX setup, an LED processor joins the panel cabinets into one display, and the nDisplay system splits rendering across several networked render nodes, each of which drives part of the LED volume. The engine distinguishes an inner frustum, the camera's field of view for the current lens focal length, from the outer frustum, the content shown on the LED volume outside the camera's view, which "turns the LED panels into a dynamic light and reflection source for the physical set." Tracked camera data is distributed through the Live Link framework, all devices are genlocked to prevent tearing, and color is managed with OpenColorIO.[23] The Virtual Production Glossary defines the frustum as "the region of the virtual world the camera sees."[24]

Latency is a constraint. On The Mandalorian there were 10 to 12 frames ("roughly half a second") between Profile's system receiving the camera position and Unreal rendering the new view on the wall; to keep the edge of the high-quality render out of shot, the frustum was projected an average of 40 percent larger than the camera's actual field of view.[16] The off-camera parts of the wall matter for lighting: cinematographer Greig Fraser told American Cinematographer that with a reflective subject such as the title character's armor, "the world outside the camera frame is often more important than the world you see in the camera's field of view."[16]

Color accuracy is a separate research problem. The RGB LEDs in typical panels have a narrow-band, "peaky" spectrum that displays a wide gamut but shifts colors when used as lighting; in a 2022 DigiPro paper, Chloe LeGendre, Lukas Lepicovsky and Paul Debevec noted, citing American Cinematographer, that lighter skin tones shift toward pink and darker skin tones toward red in such volumes, and proposed a calibration that optimizes separate color corrections for in-camera pixels, for off-camera pixels lighting the actors, and for the recorded footage.[25]

Virtual and augmented reality in virtual production

VR is used mainly before shooting. The Field Guide describes virtual scouting as a fully digital version of a location or proposed set that crew members can explore in an HMD or on a computer screen, and says the VR version can include repositionable props and virtual cameras with lenses for planning shots and set builds.[6] The Virtual Production Glossary defines virtual scouting as "the use of tools such as virtual cameras and VR headsets to share and interact with a model of a set for shot planning and production design."[26] On The Mandalorian, the virtual art department built 3D sets of each location to the production designer's specifications, after which "the director and cinematographer can go into the virtual location with VR headsets and do a virtual scout."[16] Steven Spielberg also used VR when making the film adaptation of Ready Player One.[15]

Unreal Engine ships Virtual Scouting tools for navigating, measuring and capturing images in VR, intended for directors to locate settings, compose shots and block scenes. The current tools require Unreal Engine 5.4 or later and list the Meta Quest 2, Meta Quest 3, Meta Quest Pro, Oculus Rift S and Valve Index as supported headsets; Epic says the older legacy scouting tools will be deprecated.[27] Academic prototypes follow the same idea. A 2015 paper from the European Conference on Visual Media Production described set-editing and lighting tools for virtual production that were tested on tablets, one augmented reality device and one virtual reality device,[28] and at ISMAR 2024 Roberto Salazar and Arun Kulshreshth presented a VR location-scouting tool built on a digital twin of part of a city, whose pilot users found it useful.[29]

VR tracking hardware is also used on set. Swords and Willment note that trackers developed to connect VR experiences to real spaces were used in early virtual production systems to provide the camera tracking needed for parallax.[4] HTC packaged this approach as the VIVE Mars CamTrack, a kit that opened for pre-order on 26 April 2022 at an early-bird price of US$5,000, with a control box, three Rover mounts, two SteamVR 2.0 base stations and two Vive Tracker (3.0) units, designed to simplify the use of Vive Trackers for camera tracking in virtual production.[30] HTC said it became generally available in the US, Canada and Europe on 8 August 2022, with support for up to three cameras and for FreeD, "an industry standard protocol for the camera's positional data".[31]

Swords and Willment also describe LED volumes as in some ways "scaled up virtual reality headsets" that still work like a traditional soundstage with physical props and room for cast and crew.[4] Simulcam, the live compositing of virtual elements with live-action camera footage, is cross-referenced to augmented reality in the Virtual Production Glossary.[5] In their IEEE VR 2022 paper, Manolya Kavakli and Cinzia Cremona analyzed the virtual production studio as the integrated use of VR technology, game engines and LED walls, and identified globalisation, collaboration and industrialisation as its three major trends.[32]

Limitations and criticism

Swords and Willment interviewed 30 industry professionals for their 2024 study and recorded both benefits and limits. Benefits they describe include computer-controlled lighting from the panels, the ability to shoot a time of day such as dusk for as long as needed, quick resets and less travel to locations. Participants also reported that LED panels struggle to reproduce hard directional light and midday sun, that insufficient pixel pitch produces a low-resolution image or visible moire, that some panels cause metamerism and color shifts on skin and costumes, that latency is a problem in remote collaboration, and that the cost of building or renting a volume makes LED-based production harder for lower-budget productions to adopt.[4] The authors also note that the Star Wars series Andor chose location shooting instead of the volume, and that claims about virtual production's environmental savings are contested because LED stages and rendering hardware consume large amounts of energy.[4]

Research

Academic work on virtual production covers its technology, its effect on production work and its education and skills needs. Besides the color-rendition and real-time rendering work presented at DigiPro,[25][19] studies include a remote co-design study by Aimone Bodini and colleagues that generated design concepts for immersive-technology tools in virtual production,[33] and a 2026 special issue of Convergence on education, innovation and industry, whose editors describe VP as frequently promoted for creative control, logistical flexibility and possible environmental efficiencies while critics point to technical complexity, steep learning curves and large infrastructure investments.[34]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Virtual production". The Virtual Production Glossary. Visual Effects Society and American Society of Cinematographers. https://vpglossary.com/vpglossary/virtual-production/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  2. ↑ "Virtual Production Glossary Now Live". Animation World Network. https://www.awn.com/news/virtual-production-glossary-now-live. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Groundbreaking LED Stage Production Technology Created for Hit Lucasfilm Series 'The Mandalorian'". ILM.com. Industrial Light & Magic. 2020-02-20. https://www.ilm.com/groundbreaking-led-stage-production-technology-created-for-hit-lucasfilm-series-the-mandalorian/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 Jon Swords, Nina Willment (2024). "The Emergence of Virtual Production: A Research Agenda". Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 1557-1574. doi:10.1177/13548565241253903. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565241253903. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Simulcam". The Virtual Production Glossary. https://vpglossary.com/vpglossary/simulcam/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Noah Kadner (2019). "The Virtual Production Field Guide, v1.2". Epic Games. https://cdn2.unrealengine.com/Unreal+Engine/vpfieldguide/VP-Field-Guide-V1.2.02-5d28ccec9909ff626e42c619bcbe8ed2bf83138d.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  7. ↑ "In-Camera Visual Effects (ICVFX)". The Virtual Production Glossary. https://vpglossary.com/vpglossary/in-camera-visual-effects-icvfx/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  8. ↑ S. Gibbs, C. Arapis, C. Breiteneder, V. Lalioti, S. Mostafawy, J. Speier (1998). "Virtual studios: an overview". IEEE MultiMedia, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 18-35. doi:10.1109/93.664740. https://doi.org/10.1109/93.664740. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  9. ↑ Paul Debevec, Andreas Wenger, Chris Tchou, Andrew Gardner, Jamie Waese, Tim Hawkins (2002). "A Lighting Reproduction Approach to Live-Action Compositing". ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 547-556. doi:10.1145/566654.566614. https://doi.org/10.1145/566654.566614. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  10. ↑ Paul Debevec. "Light Stage 3: Surrounding Actors with LEDs to Light them with Images of Virtual Sets". pauldebevec.com. https://www.pauldebevec.com/Research/LS3/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  11. ↑ Jay Holben (2010-01). "Conquering New Worlds: Avatar". American Cinematographer. American Society of Cinematographers. https://theasc.com/article/avatar/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Scott Hayden (2019-09-04). "Filming 'The Lion King' in VR was like a "multiplayer filmmaking game," Says Director". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/lion-king-vr-production/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  13. ↑ Nick Summers (2019-07-29). "Inside the virtual production of 'The Lion King'". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2019-07-29-lion-king-remake-vfx-mpc-interview.html. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  14. ↑ Mike Seymour (2019-08-29). "How virtual production worked on-set of The Lion King". fxguide. https://www.fxguide.com/fxfeatured/how-virtual-production-worked-on-set-of-the-lion-king/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Jamie Feltham (2020-01-13). "The Lion King VFX Supervisor: VR Filmmaking 'Is Here To Stay'". UploadVR. https://www.uploadvr.com/lion-king-vfx-vr-filmmaking/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 Jay Holben (2020-02). "The Mandalorian: This Is the Way". American Cinematographer. American Society of Cinematographers. https://theasc.com/article/the-mandalorian/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  17. ↑ "StageCraft". ILM.com. Industrial Light & Magic. https://www.ilm.com/stagecraft/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  18. ↑ Mike Seymour (2021-02-10). "Mandalorian Season 2 Virtual Production Innovations". fxguide. https://www.fxguide.com/fxfeatured/mandalorian-season-2-virtual-production-innovations/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Stephen Hill, Jeroen Schulte (2023). "Lights, Camera, Interaction! The Real-Time Technology of ILM StageCraft". DigiPro '23: The Digital Production Symposium. doi:10.1145/3603521.3604290. https://doi.org/10.1145/3603521.3604290.
  20. ↑ "The Mandalorian wins big at the 73rd Annual Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards". ILM.com. Industrial Light & Magic. 2021-09-13. https://www.ilm.com/the-mandalorian-wins-big/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  21. ↑ "ILM StageCraft Honored with Engineering, Science & Technology Emmy Award". ILM.com. Industrial Light & Magic. 2022-07-29. https://www.ilm.com/television-academy-announces-recipients-of74th-engineering-science-technologyemmy-awards/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  22. ↑ "LED volume making waves in virtual production". Futuresource Consulting. 2024-07-12. https://futuresource-consulting.com/insights/led-volume-making-waves-in-virtual-production. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  23. ↑ "In-Camera VFX Overview". Unreal Engine Documentation. Epic Games. https://dev.epicgames.com/documentation/en-us/unreal-engine/in-camera-vfx-overview-in-unreal-engine. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  24. ↑ "Frustum". The Virtual Production Glossary. https://vpglossary.com/vpglossary/frustum/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Chloe LeGendre, Lukas Lepicovsky, Paul Debevec (2022). "Jointly Optimizing Color Rendition and In-Camera Backgrounds in an RGB Virtual Production Stage". DigiPro '22: The Digital Production Symposium. doi:10.1145/3543664.3543681. https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.12403.
  26. ↑ "Virtual scouting". The Virtual Production Glossary. https://vpglossary.com/vpglossary/virtual-scouting/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  27. ↑ "Virtual Scouting in Unreal Engine". Unreal Engine Documentation. Epic Games. https://dev.epicgames.com/documentation/en-us/unreal-engine/virtual-scouting-in-unreal-engine. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  28. ↑ Jonas Trottnow, Kai Götz, Stefan Seibert, Simon Spielmann, Volker Helzle, Farshad Einabadi, Clemens K. H. Sielaff, Oliver Grau (2015). "Intuitive virtual production tools for set and light editing". CVMP 2015: 12th European Conference on Visual Media Production. doi:10.1145/2824840.2824851. https://doi.org/10.1145/2824840.2824851.
  29. ↑ Roberto E. Salazar, Arun K. Kulshreshth (2024). "Filmmaking Meets VR: A Tool for Scouting Locations in Virtual Reality for Film Production". 2024 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct). pp. 397-398. doi:10.1109/ISMAR-Adjunct64951.2024.00109. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISMAR-Adjunct64951.2024.00109.
  30. ↑ "HTC Opens Pre-orders for 'Mars CamTrack' Virtual Production Box". Road to VR. 2022-04-26. https://roadtovr.com/htc-vive-virtual-production-tracker-box/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  31. ↑ "HTC's virtual production solution VIVE Mars CamTrack hits the market". VIVE Blog. HTC. 2022-08-08. https://blog.vive.com/us/htc-virtual-production-solution-vive-mars-camtrack-hits-the-market/. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  32. ↑ Manolya Kavakli, Cinzia Cremona (2022). "The Virtual Production Studio Concept - An Emerging Game Changer in Filmmaking". 2022 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR). pp. 29-37. doi:10.1109/VR51125.2022.00020. https://doi.org/10.1109/VR51125.2022.00020.
  33. ↑ Aimone Bodini, Arthi Manohar, Federico Colecchia, David Harrison, Vanja Garaj (2023). "Envisioning the future of virtual production in filmmaking: A remote co-design study". Multimedia Tools and Applications, vol. 83, no. 7, pp. 19015-19039. doi:10.1007/s11042-023-16308-7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-16308-7. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
  34. ↑ Levi Dean, Filippo Gilardi, Sadia Jamil, Helen Kennedy, Zhaoyu Zhu (2026). "The future of virtual production: Education, innovation, and industry". Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 241-248. doi:10.1177/13548565261441948. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565261441948. Retrieved 2026-10-04.
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