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Stereoblindness

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Stereoblindness is the inability to perceive depth from binocular disparity, the small difference between the images that the left and right eyes receive of the same scene. In their 2019 review in Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, Adrien Chopin, Daphne Bavelier and Dennis Levi define it as "the total absence of stereoscopic vision", the ability otherwise known as stereopsis.[1] A substantial proportion of people are stereo-deficient and rely mostly on monocular cues to judge the relative depth or distance of objects.[2]

The condition matters for virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) because a stereoscopic head-mounted display creates depth by showing each eye its own image, which is the cue a stereoblind user cannot use; people with stereo deficiencies usually have problems perceiving depth with stereo devices.[3][4] A 2017 study with an Oculus Rift found that people without stereopsis still had an illusion of depth in the headset, which the authors attributed largely to head tracking;[4] a 2021 study found that people without global stereopsis reported weaker self-motion (vection) and presence in VR than people with normal stereo vision.[5] The same dichoptic capability, a separate image for each eye, has also made VR headsets a research and clinical tool for treating amblyopia and for retraining stereo vision.[6][7]

Reviewed 6 October 2026. Every claim, quote and figure checked against the cited papers, FDA De Novo and 510(k) documents and Apple support pages. About review dates.

Definition

Stereopsis depends on the brain matching corresponding features in the two retinal images and reading their horizontal offset as relative depth (see Binocular vision and Depth cue).[8] Chopin, Bavelier and Levi stress that stereopsis "is not a unitary construct, but rather implies different systems", and that the measured prevalence of stereoblindness "appears highly dependent on the way in which stereopsis is measured".[1] Clinicians and researchers distinguish, for example, between local (contour) stereopsis, tested with isolated shapes, and global stereopsis, tested with random-dot stereograms in which the hidden shape is invisible to either eye alone.[9][10]

Because every test has limits, the label partly reflects the test used. In a 2015 review in Vision Research, Levi, Knill and Bavelier note that every clinical test has a maximum disparity, that people who fail to detect the largest disparity "are often labeled as 'stereoblind'", and that some patients classed as stereoblind on standard tests keep residual stereoscopic functions, such as sensitivity to motion in depth. They warn that the recorded "zero" "may not actually be zero".[11] Researchers also describe milder stereo deficiencies, sometimes called stereo-anomaly. Richards found people who could tell that a figure lay off the plane of fixation but not whether it was in front of or behind it,[8] and Dorman and van Ee describe observers who cannot process a whole class of disparities in either near or far depth.[12]

Causes

Stereoblindness is commonly associated with strabismus and amblyopia. Amblyopia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of the visual cortex that arises from abnormal visual experience early in life. Levi, Knill and Bavelier describe impaired stereoscopic depth perception as "the most common deficit associated with amblyopia under ordinary (binocular) viewing conditions", and report that stereopsis is more affected in strabismic amblyopia (caused by misaligned eyes) than in anisometropic amblyopia (caused by unequal refractive error in the two eyes). In the data they review, amblyopes who are essentially stereoblind are mainly strabismic, whether purely strabismic or mixed.[11] Brain plasticity peaks during a critical period in early childhood, which is why early treatment is emphasized, although the same review summarizes evidence that some plasticity for binocular function remains in adults.[11]

Stereo deficits are also common in people with otherwise normal vision. Robert Hess and colleagues at McGill University wrote in 2015 that why so many people lack good stereo vision "is unclear but it is likely to be neural and reversible".[13] Richards proposed in 1970 that humans have at least three classes of wide-field disparity detectors, tuned to crossed (near), uncrossed (far) and zero disparities, and that a person lacking a class could not perceive that type of disparity; full stereoblindness would result only when all classes were absent.[8] Dorman and van Ee, reviewing the field in 2017, proposed that an asymmetry between near and far disparity detection present at birth could suppress the normal development of binocular correlation during the critical period and disable a whole class of near or far disparities.[12] In a study of 300 surgeons, gynecologists and urologists, Fergo and colleagues found that age, and being unaware of any vision anomaly in need of correction, were significantly associated with stereoblindness.[14]

Prevalence

Published estimates vary widely. Fergo and colleagues summarized the range in the general population as 1 to 30 percent,[14] and Chopin, Bavelier and Levi attribute much of the spread to differences in how stereopsis is tested.[1]

Study Sample Method Reported result
Richards (1970)[8] 150 members of the MIT community Julesz random-dot figures About 4% of students unable to use the disparity cue; another 10% had great difficulty and misreported whether the figure was in front of or behind the background
Hess, To, Zhou, Wang and Cooperstock (2015)[13] 531 people tested online, plus a McGill University student group Web-based random-dot test viewed with anaglyph glasses 68% had good to excellent stereo; 32% had moderate to poor stereo
Fergo, Burcharth, Pommergaard and Rosenberg (2016)[14] 300 doctors in general surgery, gynecology and urology, aged 25-71 Random Dot E stereo test 9.7% stereo blind
Read et al. (2019)[15] 389 children aged 2-5 with apparently normal vision Randot Preschool stereotest 6% scored nil (stereoblind)
Chopin, Bavelier and Levi (2019)[1] Best-evidence synthesis of earlier studies, adults under 60 Four estimation approaches All four converged on 7%; older adults may have a higher prevalence

Richards' 1970 paper also estimated that the probability of lacking one of the three classes of disparity detectors was about 30 percent, which he calculated meant that 2.7 percent of the population had no wide-field stereopsis in one hemisphere.[8] Dorman and van Ee summarize this finding as about 30 percent of observers from the normal population being unable to process binocular disparities in either far or near depth, and they use the word stereoblindness for this partial inability, which is narrower than the total absence of stereopsis in Chopin, Bavelier and Levi's definition.[12]

Diagnosis

Random-dot stereotests hide a figure that is defined only by disparity, so a viewer who cannot process disparity cannot see it.[8] A 2019 survey of eye care professionals by Kathleen Vancleef and Jenny Read found the Frisby test to be the most used stereotest in the British Isles, while the Titmus and Randot tests were used more often in the United States and Canada.[16] Other tests include the TNO test, which uses red and green anaglyph glasses and gave thresholds about a factor of two higher than other stereotests in one study of 149 children,[9] and the Lang 1 Stereotest, which was used to identify participants without stereopsis in a 2017 VR study.[4] Results are usually given as a threshold disparity in seconds of arc.[15] Read and colleagues found that the Randot Preschool test reliably separates children with any stereo vision from those who are stereoblind, but that about half of the children with a demonstrable binocular vision abnormality still scored well on it.[15]

Digital display technology has produced newer tests. ASTEROID, described by Kathleen Vancleef, Jenny Read and colleagues in 2019, runs as a game on an autostereoscopic tablet, shows dynamic random-dot stereograms and adjusts the disparity with an adaptive staircase.[17] Denkinger and colleagues evaluated the Vivid Vision Stereo Test, a local stereotest for VR headsets, in 64 subjects in 2023. It could not measure stereoacuities below 15 arcsec, correlated only weakly (0.27) with ASTEROID and had poor to moderate test-retest reliability, but it was quick and showed no learning effect between sessions; the authors suggested it may be useful for testing interventions in patients with no global stereopsis. One of the authors, Benjamin Backus, was affiliated with Vivid Vision, Inc. and disclosed a relationship with the company.[10]

History

Stereopsis was identified in 1838, when Charles Wheatstone showed with his stereoscope that two flat pictures differing only in horizontal disparity combine into a single impression of depth.[8] Richards described a random-dot method published by Béla Julesz in 1964 as a practical and efficient test for stereopsis and stereoblindness: the hidden figure exists only in the disparity between the two patterns, so a viewer who cannot process disparity cannot see it.[8]

Whitman Richards of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology reported a survey of 150 members of the MIT community with such figures, and tested about 75 subjects with polarized line stimuli flashed for 80 milliseconds, in the 1970 paper "Stereopsis and Stereoblindness" in Experimental Brain Research. He wrote that without a mechanism for analysing horizontal disparity a person "would be unable to detect horizontal binocular disparities and would be 'stereoblind'".[8] In a 2017 review in i-Perception titled "50 Years of Stereoblindness", Reinder Dorman and Raymond van Ee credited Richards (1932-2016) with discovering the partial form of stereoblindness some 50 years earlier, and argued that many stereopsis studies still do not assess their observers' stereoblindness precisely enough.[12]

Several adults have documented regaining stereopsis. Neurobiologist Susan Barry of Mount Holyoke College was cross-eyed as a child, had eye surgery at ages 2, 3 and 7, and gained stereo vision at 48 after optometric vision therapy; her case was described by neurologist Oliver Sacks in The New Yorker and in her own book, Fixing My Gaze.[18] Vision researcher Bruce Bridgeman, who had had alternating exotropia, reported that his Wirt stereo threshold fell from 200 to 80 arcsec after watching Martin Scorsese's Hugo in 3D in February 2012.[19] In 2011 Jian Ding and Dennis Levi reported the first evidence that perceptual learning could restore stereopsis in adults long deprived of normal binocular vision; their initially stereoblind or stereoanomalous subjects reported that depth "popped out" in real life and that they could enjoy 3D movies for the first time.[11] In 2017 Barry and Bridgeman reported an online questionnaire that received 63 responses from people who had gained stereopsis as adults; 89 percent reported strabismus or amblyopia, and all but seven had achieved stereo vision through vision training, or surgery combined with vision training.[20]

Stereoblindness in VR and AR

Depth without stereopsis

A stereoscopic headset delivers binocular disparity through stereoscopic rendering, but it also updates the image as the user's head moves, producing motion parallax. Ivan Sutherland's 1968 head-mounted display relied heavily on this second cue. He wrote that "moving perspective images appear strikingly three-dimensional even without stereo presentation" and that his display "depends heavily on this 'kinetic depth effect'", while also noting that "observers capable of stereo vision uniformly remark on the realism" of its stereo images.[3]

Later experiments tested stereoblind users directly. Sonia Cárdenas-Delgado and colleagues at the Universitat Politècnica de València and two other Spanish universities began their study after noticing that master's students without stereopsis perceived no depth in a CAVE, on a large stereo screen or on autostereoscopic displays, yet did have a sensation of depth with the Oculus Rift. They randomly assigned 59 university students, with and without stereopsis, to two conditions for a 3D maze navigation task: an Oculus Rift DK2 with head tracking, and a large stereo screen viewed with polarized glasses. Task performance did not differ significantly between the groups with and without stereopsis, the authors reported statistically significant differences in favor of the headset for both groups, and participants who could not perceive 3D on the Lang 1 Stereotest still had the illusion of depth in the headset. The authors concluded that for people without stereopsis "the head tracking largely influences the 3D experience". The paper was presented at the INTERACT 2017 conference in Mumbai.[4]

Vection, presence and sickness

Wilson Luu and colleagues at the University of New South Wales used an Oculus Rift CV1 to show radial optic flow that simulated self-motion in depth. In their first experiment, temporarily impairing stereopsis in healthy participants by defocusing one eye (anisometropic suppression) reduced reported vection, spatial presence and the severity of cybersickness (see Virtual reality sickness). In the second experiment, 15 participants who could not perceive global stereopsis on a random-dot test reported lower vection and presence than participants with normal stereo vision. The authors concluded in Scientific Reports (2021) that reducing global stereopsis "can have benefits of reducing cybersickness, but has adverse effects on aspects of self-motion perception in HMD VR".[5]

Stereoscopic displays in professional use

Fergo and colleagues tested surgeons because 3D laparoscopy, which gives a stereoscopic view of the operating field, assumes normal stereo vision; they concluded that the roughly one in ten stereo-blind doctors in their sample "will not benefit from the implementation of 3D laparoscopy".[14] Levi, Knill and Bavelier name surgeons, pilots and architects as professions in which excellent stereoacuity is vital.[11]

Eye tracking

The eye misalignment behind many cases of stereoblindness can also affect headset input. Apple's support documentation states that changes in eye alignment, "including strabismus or lazy eye", might make it difficult for Apple Vision Pro to detect the user's eyes properly. visionOS has an Eye Input accessibility setting with the choices Both Eyes, Left Eye Only or Right Eye Only, so that eye tracking can use one eye only.[21][22]

VR-based treatment research

Because a headset can show each eye different content, researchers use it for dichoptic training, which stimulates the amblyopic eye and aims to eliminate interocular suppression. Luminopia's software, for example, reduces contrast in the stronger eye's image and occludes parts of each eye's image with dichoptic masks to promote binocular combination.[6][23] Most of these studies target amblyopia; those below report stereo outcomes. See also Virtual reality therapy.

Study Headset Participants Reported stereo outcome
Vedamurthy et al. (2016)[2] Virtual reality environment with a physical hand-held cylinder Adults stereo blind or stereo-deficient from strabismus and/or amblyopia After training on a "bug squashing" task, most participants relied more on stereoscopic cues, showed less suppression and improved stereoacuity
Ziak et al. (2017)[6] Oculus Rift DK2, Diplopia Game (Vivid Vision) 17 adults with anisometropic amblyopia, 8 sessions of 40 minutes Mean stereoacuity 263.3 to 176.7 arcsec; unmeasurable stereoacuity in 8 patients before training and 2 after
Godinez et al. (2021)[24] Oculus Rift DK2 10 adults with binocular impairments and 10 with normal vision Mean stereoacuity of the impaired group 569 to 296 arcsec; 9 of 10 showed transfer to clinical and psychophysical tests; several who were initially "stereoblind" gained measurable stereoacuity
Calderón-González et al. (2025)[25] VR headset, 8-10 sessions of about 30 minutes 9 adults with nil global stereoacuity and 5 controls 4 of the 9 participants without measurable global stereopsis reached measurable thresholds after training (p = 0.06); local stereoacuity improved at near and distance

Godinez and colleagues built their games around "scaffolding": each game started with non-binocular and binocular depth cues and ended with binocular disparity alone, and in-game depth accuracy was measured in arcseconds.[24] Both papers disclose that co-author Santiago Martín-González, with the support of the University of Oviedo, promoted the creation of the start-up VisionaryTool. The 2021 paper states that he helped VisionaryTool create a commercial version of its two games, and the 2025 study used Pirate Island, a game developed by VisionaryTool.[24][25]

Luminopia

Luminopia One is software that modifies TV shows and films in a headset by reducing contrast to the stronger eye and overlaying dichoptic masks. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted its De Novo request on 20 October 2021, creating the device type "digital therapy device for amblyopia" (21 CFR 886.5500). It was indicated for children aged 4 to 7 with amblyopia, and at that time the Samsung Gear was the only compatible headset.[7][26] In the pivotal randomized trial, run by Luminopia with academic co-investigators and published in Ophthalmology, amblyopic-eye visual acuity of children aged 4 to 7 improved by 1.8 lines with the treatment plus glasses versus 0.8 lines with glasses alone at 12 weeks.[27] Stereo vision did not improve in the same way: the FDA summary states that the device "did not demonstrate a clinically meaningful improvement in stereoacuity (depth perception)".[7] A 510(k) clearance dated 9 April 2025 extended the indication to ages 4 to under 13 and listed the Pico G2 4K and DPVR P1 Pro 4K as compatible headsets.[23]

Evidence reviews

Germany's Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG) published a health technology assessment of digital vision training for children and adolescents in July 2023. It included 11 randomized trials of dichoptic training, two of which used virtual reality glasses, and found no hint of greater benefit for binocular vision compared with no training, sham training or occlusion.[28] Levi, Knill and Bavelier's review concluded that strabismic amblyopes have a very low probability of improving with monocular training, fare better with dichoptic training and better still with direct stereo training.[11]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Adrien Chopin, Daphne Bavelier, Dennis M. Levi (2019). "The prevalence and diagnosis of 'stereoblindness' in adults less than 60 years of age: a best evidence synthesis". Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 66-85. doi:10.1111/opo.12607. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12607. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 I. Vedamurthy, D. C. Knill, S. J. Huang, A. Yung, J. Ding, O.-S. Kwon, D. Bavelier, D. M. Levi (2016-06-19). "Recovering stereo vision by squashing virtual bugs in a virtual reality environment". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, vol. 371, no. 1697, 20150264. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0264. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0264. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Ivan E. Sutherland (1968-12). "A head-mounted three dimensional display". Proceedings of the Fall Joint Computer Conference 1968 (AFIPS). doi:10.1145/1476589.1476686. https://web.stanford.edu/class/ee267/notes/sutherland_hmd.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Sonia Cárdenas-Delgado, M.-Carmen Juan, Magdalena Méndez-López, Elena Pérez-Hernández (2017). "Could People with Stereo-Deficiencies Have a Rich 3D Experience Using HMDs?". Human-Computer Interaction - INTERACT 2017 (16th IFIP TC 13 Conference), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 97-116. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-67744-6_7. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67744-6_7. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Wilson Luu, Barbara Zangerl, Michael Kalloniatis, Juno Kim (2021-06-11). "Effects of stereopsis on vection, presence and cybersickness in head-mounted display (HMD) virtual reality". Scientific Reports, vol. 11, 12373. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-89751-x. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89751-x. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 P. Žiak, A. Holm, J. Halička, P. Mojžiš, D. P. Piñero (2017-06-28). "Amblyopia treatment of adults with dichoptic training using the virtual reality oculus rift head mounted display: preliminary results". BMC Ophthalmology, vol. 17, 105. doi:10.1186/s12886-017-0501-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-017-0501-8. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "De Novo Classification Request for Luminopia One (DEN210005), decision summary". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/reviews/DEN210005.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Whitman Richards (1970). "Stereopsis and Stereoblindness". Experimental Brain Research, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 380-388. doi:10.1007/BF02324765. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02324765. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 K. Vancleef, J. C. A. Read, W. Herbert, N. Goodship, M. Woodhouse, I. Serrano-Pedraza (2017). "Overestimation of stereo thresholds by the TNO stereotest is not due to global stereopsis". Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 507-520. doi:10.1111/opo.12371. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12371. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 S. Denkinger, M.-P. Antoniou, D. Tarello, D. M. Levi, B. T. Backus, D. Bavelier, A. Chopin (2023-03-01). "The eRDS v6 Stereotest and the Vivid Vision Stereo Test: Two New Tests of Stereoscopic Vision". Translational Vision Science and Technology, vol. 12, no. 3, 1. doi:10.1167/tvst.12.3.1. https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.12.3.1. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 D. M. Levi, D. C. Knill, D. Bavelier (2015-09). "Stereopsis and amblyopia: A mini-review". Vision Research, vol. 114, pp. 17-30. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2015.01.002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2015.01.002. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Reinder Dorman, Raymond van Ee (2017-11-16). "50 Years of Stereoblindness: Reconciliation of a Continuum of Disparity Detectors With Blindness for Disparity in Near or Far Depth". i-Perception, vol. 8, no. 6. doi:10.1177/2041669517738542. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041669517738542. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 R. F. Hess, L. To, J. Zhou, G. Wang, J. R. Cooperstock (2015). "Stereo Vision: The Haves and Have-Nots". i-Perception, vol. 6, no. 3. doi:10.1177/2041669515593028. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041669515593028. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 C. Fergo, J. Burcharth, H.-C. Pommergaard, J. Rosenberg (2016-11). "Age is highly associated with stereo blindness among surgeons: a cross-sectional study". Surgical Endoscopy, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 4889-4894. doi:10.1007/s00464-016-4826-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-016-4826-9. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 J. C. A. Read, S. Rafiq, J. Hugill, T. Casanova, et al. (2019-11-07). "Characterizing the Randot Preschool stereotest: Testability, norms, reliability, specificity and sensitivity in children aged 2-11 years". PLOS ONE, vol. 14, no. 11, e0224402. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224402. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224402. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  16. ↑ Kathleen Vancleef, Jenny C. A. Read (2019-02-13). "Which Stereotest do You Use? A Survey Research Study in the British Isles, the United States and Canada". British and Irish Orthoptic Journal, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 15-24. doi:10.22599/bioj.120. https://doi.org/10.22599/bioj.120. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  17. ↑ K. Vancleef, I. Serrano-Pedraza, C. Sharp, G. Slack, et al. (2019-02-28). "ASTEROID: A New Clinical Stereotest on an Autostereo 3D Tablet". Translational Vision Science and Technology, vol. 8, no. 1, 25. doi:10.1167/tvst.8.1.25. https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.8.1.25. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  18. ↑ "An Interview with 'Stereo Sue'". Review of Optometry. 2009-07-01. https://www.reviewofoptometry.com/article/an-interview-with-stereo-sue. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  19. ↑ Bruce Bridgeman (2014-06). "Restoring adult stereopsis: a vision researcher's personal experience". Optometry and Vision Science, vol. 91, no. 6, pp. e135-e139. doi:10.1097/OPX.0000000000000272. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000000272. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  20. ↑ Susan R. Barry, Bruce Bridgeman (2017-10). "An Assessment of Stereovision Acquired in Adulthood". Optometry and Vision Science, vol. 94, no. 10, pp. 993-999. doi:10.1097/OPX.0000000000001115. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001115. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  21. ↑ "Using Apple Vision Pro with vision prescriptions and vision conditions". Apple Support. Apple. https://support.apple.com/en-us/120052. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  22. ↑ "Change which eye to navigate with on Apple Vision Pro". Apple Vision Pro User Guide. Apple. https://support.apple.com/guide/apple-vision-pro/eye-input-tan88016cfa4/visionos. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "510(k) clearance K243819, Luminopia". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2025-04-09. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/pdf24/K243819.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 A. Godinez, S. Martín-González, O. Ibarrondo, D. M. Levi (2021-05-12). "Scaffolding depth cues and perceptual learning in VR to train stereovision: a proof of concept pilot study". Scientific Reports, vol. 11, 10129. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-89064-z. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89064-z. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 M. T. Calderón-González, I. Sánchez-Pavón, J. A. Portela-Camino, S. Martín-González (2025-12-19). "Effects of Perceptual Learning Through Binocular Virtual Reality Exercises on Low Stereopsis". Journal of Clinical Medicine, vol. 15, no. 1, 6. doi:10.3390/jcm15010006. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15010006. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  26. ↑ "De Novo request DEN210005 granted, letter to Luminopia, Inc.". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2021-10-20. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/pdf21/DEN210005.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  27. ↑ S. Xiao, E. Angjeli, H. C. Wu, E. D. Gaier, S. Gomez, et al. (2022-01). "Randomized Controlled Trial of a Dichoptic Digital Therapeutic for Amblyopia". Ophthalmology, vol. 129, no. 1, pp. 77-85. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.09.001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.09.001. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
  28. ↑ "Developmental vision disorders: Do children and adolescents benefit from active vision training?". IQWiG Reports, Commission No. HT21-03. Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). 2023-07-25. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37878737/. Retrieved 2026-10-06.
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