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Liquid crystal lens

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A liquid crystal lens (LC lens) is a lens whose optical power is set by a layer of liquid crystal rather than, or in addition to, a fixed curved surface of glass or plastic. Applying a voltage reorients the liquid crystal molecules, which changes the refractive index that light experiences and therefore the focal length, so the lens can be refocused electrically with no moving parts.[1][2] A 2017 review by Yi-Hsin Lin, Yu-Jen Wang and Victor Reshetnyak describes three main types: lenses with curved surfaces, flat gradient-index lenses and composite lenses.[3] A related family, the Pancharatnam-Berry (geometric phase) lens, uses a thin patterned liquid crystal layer whose focusing power depends on the handedness of circularly polarized light.[4]

In virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), liquid crystal lenses are studied mainly as a way to change the focal distance of a head-mounted display and so reduce the vergence-accommodation conflict, and as a way to correct the wearer's vision inside a headset or in electronic eyeglasses.[5] Meta's Half Dome 3 research prototype, shown in 2019, used a stack of six liquid crystal lenses to switch among 64 focal planes.[6] Meta had not shipped a headset with varifocal technology as of July 2025, and the headset work described below consists of research prototypes.[7]

Reviewed 11 October 2026. Checked authors, titles, venues and DOIs of all cited papers against Crossref, the key physics and figures against the Sato, Naumov, Zhan, Love and Bhowmick (2022) texts and the Algorri 2019 review, Half Dome 3 details against Meta's blog and press reports, and the PixelOptics, Morrow and DeepOptics facts against their cited sources. About review dates.

How it works

Birefringence and voltage control

Nematic liquid crystals are birefringent: light polarized along the long axis of the molecules (the director) sees the extraordinary refractive index, and light polarized across it sees the ordinary index. With a material of positive birefringence, an applied electric field turns the director toward the direction of the field, which lowers the index seen by light polarized along the original alignment.[8] In Susumu Sato's 1979 lens cells, shaped like plano-convex or plano-concave lenses, the focal length could be varied between the value for the extraordinary ray (homogeneous alignment) and the value for the ordinary ray (homeotropic alignment) by applying an electric or magnetic field across the cell.[1]

Because the effect works on one polarization, a simple nematic lens focuses only light polarized along its alignment direction. Sato also switched the focal length by placing a twisted nematic (TN) cell between the polarizer and the lens to rotate the incoming polarization.[1] Algorri and colleagues list polarization-independent lenses as one of the design categories in their 2019 review, alongside curved lenses, patterned electrodes, modal control, alignment-layer designs and Fresnel designs.[2]

Gradient-index lenses

Many liquid crystal lens designs do not use a curved cell. Instead, the electrodes produce a voltage that varies gradually across the aperture, creating a parabolic refractive-index gradient in the liquid crystal layer that imitates the phase delay of a conventional lens.[2] Treated as a gradient-index (GRIN) lens, its focal length can be estimated as f = r2/(2dΔn), where r is the lens radius, d the thickness of the liquid crystal layer and Δn the birefringence. A thinner layer responds faster and uses less material, while short focal lengths need a thicker layer or a material with higher birefringence.[9]

Two common ways to shape the voltage are a hole-patterned electrode and modal control. In the modal design reported by Alexander Naumov, Mikhail Loktev, Igor Guralnik and Gleb Vdovin in 1998, the cell has a distributed reactive electrical impedance and is driven by an AC voltage applied at its boundary; the phase profile depends on the frequency of the control voltage, the shape of the boundary electrode and the electrical parameters of the cell. Their cylindrical lens had a clear aperture of 15 mm x 4 mm and their spherical lens a 6.5 mm circular aperture, and both could focus collimated light from infinity to 0.5 m.[10] In the modal approach a high-resistivity layer shapes the voltage gradient, and the sheet resistance of the control electrode is a key design parameter. Intensive research on the technique led to a commercial modal liquid crystal lens from Flexible Optical B.V. (OKO Tech).[2]

Aperture, speed and Fresnel resets

Large apertures are the main difficulty for headset and eyewear use. In their 2022 paper, Amit Kumar Bhowmick and co-authors from Kent State University and Meta Reality Labs explain that the optical path difference a liquid crystal cell can produce rises linearly with cell thickness, while the optical path difference a thin lens needs rises with the square of its radius. The response time of the cell rises with the square of its thickness, so for a given optical power it rises with the fourth power of the lens radius, and apertures larger than 1 cm are hard to switch quickly.[8]

One solution is to split the phase profile into zones separated by phase resets, as in a Fresnel lens, which keeps the liquid crystal layer thin. Afsoon Jamali and colleagues described a large-aperture refractive Fresnel liquid crystal lens on this principle in 2018 and reported that image degradation from the resets was minimal when the segment spacing took human eye resolution into account.[11] According to the 2022 paper, with M phase resets and N stacked cells the switching time falls by a factor of (N x M)2. The resets have a cost: the transition at each zone boundary has a finite width (about 20 μm in a 20 μm thick cell), which scatters light into a background haze and lowers the modulation transfer function, and the effect grows toward the edge of the lens where the zones are narrower.[8] A 2023 follow-up paper analyzed the haze caused by the reset boundaries and electrode discontinuities and tested ways to reduce it.[5]

Pancharatnam-Berry phase lenses

A Pancharatnam-Berry (PB) optical element is a half-wave plate whose optic axis rotates from point to point. Circularly polarized light passing through it has its handedness reversed and picks up a phase equal to twice the local axis angle, with opposite signs for left- and right-handed light. Arranging the axis angle so that it grows roughly with the square of the radius gives a lens. Driven actively, with a voltage across the cell, the lens switches between zero power and its design power K; driven passively, with an external polarization rotator that flips the input handedness, it switches between -K and +K.[4] Because the phase is geometric, the optical power of a PB lens made by surface alignment does not depend on the birefringence of the liquid crystal, and both passive polymer-film and active liquid crystal cell versions can be made.[12]

Erez Hasman and colleagues demonstrated a polarization-dependent focusing lens based on quantized PB phase optics in 2003, made from a space-variant subwavelength dielectric grating and working at the infrared wavelength of 10.6 μm.[13] Photoaligned liquid crystal films later made such lenses practical at visible wavelengths. In 2015 Kun Gao, Philip Bos and colleagues reported a thin-film PB lens about 2.26 μm thick at f/2.1 with efficiency above 97%, switchable from positive to negative focal length by changing the input handedness, and Jihwan Kim, Michael Escuti and colleagues reported a geometric-phase lens at F/2.3 (at 633 nm) with 99% diffraction efficiency across visible wavelengths.[14][15] Yin and colleagues describe a hybrid lens that pairs a passive diffractive PB lens with a refractive lens; because the two have opposite dispersion, their chromatic aberrations compensate each other.[12]

Comparison of the main types

Type Principle Typical switching Main limitations
Curved-cell lens Liquid crystal fills a lens-shaped cavity; voltage moves the index between the ordinary and extraordinary values[1] Continuous between two focal lengths Thick layers, slow response[2]
Gradient-index lens (hole-patterned or modal electrodes) Voltage profile creates a parabolic index gradient in a flat cell[2] Continuous Response time rises steeply with aperture[8]
Fresnel or segmented-phase lens Phase profile divided into zones by phase resets[11] Continuous, faster than an unsegmented lens of the same aperture Haze and diffraction at reset boundaries[5]
Pancharatnam-Berry (geometric phase) lens Patterned half-wave plate acting on circular polarization[4] Discrete states (0 and K, or -K and +K); 0.54 ms measured in one active lens[4] Needs circularly polarized light; limited bandwidth[14]

History

Algorri and colleagues trace the first proposals to the late 1970s, citing work by Berreman and co-workers (with a patent application in 1977) and by Sato in 1979. These first lenses were curved cavities filled with liquid crystal, and their thick layers gave slow responses.[2] Sato's paper in the Japanese Journal of Applied Physics described plano-convex and plano-concave lens cells and examined how their optical transmission changed with the thickness of the liquid crystal layer.[1]

In the late 1980s researchers demonstrated liquid crystal lenses at the micrometre scale, and the first Fresnel liquid crystal lenses reduced the required thickness and allowed larger diameters. Naumov and colleagues improved the patterned-electrode lens for large apertures by adding a high-resistivity layer, and reported modal-control lenses in Optics Letters in 1998.[2][10] Algorri's review describes adaptive-focus lenses as the most intensively researched of the liquid crystal phase-modulation applications over the preceding 40 years.[2]

Commercial liquid crystal eyeglasses were developed in 2011. PixelOptics of Roanoke, Virginia, announced its emPower electronic glasses for June 2011; their lenses, made in Japan by Panasonic, held a thin liquid crystal layer between two layers of plastic, and a reading zone in the lower part of each lens switched on when the wearer tilted the head down or touched the frame.[16] The company later went bankrupt; Algorri and colleagues attribute this to a high rate of returns caused by battery problems and defective devices.[2]

Geometric-phase lenses developed in parallel, from Hasman's 2003 infrared demonstration to photoaligned liquid crystal films in 2015.[13][14][15] In the late 2010s, groups at the University of Central Florida and Kent State University published liquid crystal lens designs aimed specifically at near-eye displays.[4][11]

Applications in VR and AR

Varifocal and multifocal headsets

Conventional headsets show every image at one fixed focal distance, set by the headset lens, while stereoscopic content asks the eyes to converge at other distances. The resulting conflict between accommodation and convergence causes visual fatigue.[8] A varifocal display changes the focal distance to follow the user's gaze, and a multifocal display presents several focal planes; both need an element that can change focus quickly, and liquid crystal lenses are one candidate.[4][17]

An early focus-correct stereo display used liquid crystals as fast polarization switches rather than as the lens itself. Gordon Love, Martin Banks and colleagues built a "high-speed switchable lens" from two fixed birefringent calcite lenses, each preceded by a ferroelectric liquid crystal polarization switch, giving four focal states of 5.09, 5.69, 6.29 and 6.89 diopters. With a cathode-ray tube running at 180 Hz, each focal state was shown at 45 Hz per eye in their two-display system.[18]

Tao Zhan, Yun-Han Lee and Shin-Tson Wu at the University of Central Florida used a stack of two actively switched PB lenses (±1.5 D and ±0.5 D, 25 mm x 25 mm) giving combined lens powers of 0, 0.5, 1 and 1.5 D, for an additive light field near-eye display in 2018. Their lens (1.6 μm cell gap) had a measured response time of 0.54 ms, which they described as fast enough for a display panel with a 1 kHz frame rate.[4] The same group proposed a compact see-through AR display that combined a PB deflector waveguide coupler with fast-switching PB lenses for depth adaption.[19] Their 2022 review also describes PB lenses used for polarization-multiplexed two-plane VR displays and for a foveated display in which the opposite focal lengths for the two circular polarizations produce high- and low-angular-resolution modes.[12]

Meta Half Dome 3

Facebook Reality Labs (now Reality Labs) chief scientist Michael Abrash revealed the Half Dome 2 and Half Dome 3 varifocal prototypes at Oculus Connect 6 on 25 September 2019.[6] Earlier Half Dome prototypes adjusted focus with moving mechanical parts. Half Dome 3 replaced them with a static electronic varifocal system made of a thin, alternating stack of polarization-dependent lenses and switchable half-wave plates. Applying a voltage to a switchable half-wave plate toggles a polarization-dependent lens between two focal lengths, so each added lens doubles the number of focal planes, and six liquid crystal lenses sweep through 64.[20] Removing the moving parts also removed noise and vibration, and the prototype used folded optics to shrink the display module.[21][22]

In a keynote at the SPIE AR VR MR 2020 conference, Douglas Lanman, then Facebook Reality Labs' director of display systems research, placed Half Dome 3 at level 5 ("Large Scale Prototype") on NASA's nine-level technology readiness scale and said, "It's almost ready for primetime."[22][23] In July 2025 Road to VR noted that, nearly seven years after Meta first showed a varifocal prototype in 2018, the company still had not shipped a headset with varifocal technology.[7]

Continuously tunable lenses for headsets

A second line of work, by researchers at Kent State University's Advanced Materials and Liquid Crystal Institute and at Meta Reality Labs, with Philip J. Bos as senior author, uses large gradient-index lenses that tune continuously instead of switching between fixed states.[8] A 2018 Optical Engineering paper by Jamali, Bos and colleagues proposed using eye tracking to measure the convergence of the user's eyes and a hybrid electronic lens, made of a segmented-phase liquid crystal lens and Pancharatnam phase lenses, to set the matching optical power.[17]

At SID Display Week 2022 the group described a 5 cm aperture lens, a Kent State graduate student project with funding and participation from Meta Reality Labs.[24] It uses concentric ring electrodes joined by a resistor network and 28 phase resets. One 20 μm cell tunes from -0.40 D to +0.40 D; two anti-parallel cells give -0.80 D to +0.80 D, and a fixed +0.80 D glass compensator shifts the range to 0 D to 1.60 D, with switching within 500 ms. Image quality was close to diffraction-limited at the center and degraded toward the edge.[8] Road to VR reported the authors' assessment of possibly acceptable image quality within a gaze angle of about 30 degrees. Asked about Half Dome 3, lead author Amit Kumar Bhowmick contrasted its stack of individually switched layers with the new lens, which tunes focal length by changing the voltage distribution across one cell, and said the team had not compared the two for optical quality.[24]

Vision correction in headsets and eyewear

The same Kent State and Meta group reported in 2023 a liquid crystal lens that corrects both focal length and astigmatism, aimed at dynamic prescription (Rx) correction as well as accommodation-convergence correction, and wrote that such a device has potential to replace the eyeglasses users wear with head-mounted displays.[25] In 2024 they reported a 50 mm diameter lens, building on an earlier 20 mm lens that Jamali and colleagues had shown for both accommodation-convergence and presbyopia correction, and argued that apertures larger than 20 mm are needed for a wide field of view in near-eye use.[26]

Outside headsets, liquid crystal lenses have reached a few electronic eyeglasses for presbyopia, which are relevant to smart glasses design:

Product Company Launch Liquid crystal approach
emPower PixelOptics (Roanoke, Virginia) Planned for release in June 2011[16] Thin liquid crystal layer between plastic layers; reading zone switched by head tilt or a touch on the frame[16]
Autofocals Morrow (Ghent, Belgium; spun off from imec and Ghent University in 2016) Belgian market, 2021[27] Liquid crystal between two thin optical lenses; a small current switches between distance and near vision at the touch of a button[27]
32°N DeepOptics Kickstarter campaign, 2021[28] Liquid crystal layers divided into small pixels; a swipe on the temple changes the reading power[28]

ZEISS Ventures and New Science Ventures led a funding round of more than 10 million euros in Morrow in July 2022.[27] Essilor, now EssilorLuxottica, took a stake in DeepOptics in 2016, and Essilor and Samsung Ventures financed the company's move into ophthalmic optics.[28]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Susumu Sato (1979-09). "Liquid-Crystal Lens-Cells with Variable Focal Length". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 18, no. 9. pp. 1679-1684. doi:10.1143/JJAP.18.1679. https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.18.1679. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 José Francisco Algorri, Dimitrios C. Zografopoulos, Virginia Urruchi, José Manuel Sánchez-Pena (2019-05-25). "Recent Advances in Adaptive Liquid Crystal Lenses". Crystals, vol. 9, no. 5, article 272. MDPI. doi:10.3390/cryst9050272. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst9050272. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  3. ↑ Yi-Hsin Lin, Yu-Jen Wang, Victor Reshetnyak (2017). "Liquid crystal lenses with tunable focal length". Liquid Crystals Reviews, vol. 5, no. 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 111-143. doi:10.1080/21680396.2018.1440256. https://doi.org/10.1080/21680396.2018.1440256. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Tao Zhan, Yun-Han Lee, Shin-Tson Wu (2018-02-19). "High-resolution additive light field near-eye display by switchable Pancharatnam-Berry phase lenses". Optics Express, vol. 26, no. 4. Optica Publishing Group. pp. 4863-4872. doi:10.1364/OE.26.004863. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.26.004863. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Amit K. Bhowmick, Afsoon Jamali, Doug Bryant, Sandro Pintz, Philip J. Bos (2023-08-04). "Haze reduction in concentric electrode-based large aperture liquid crystal lens with segmented phase profile". Optical Engineering, vol. 62, no. 8. SPIE. doi:10.1117/1.OE.62.8.085101. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.OE.62.8.085101. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Jeremy Horwitz (2019-09-25). "Facebook teases Oculus Half Dome 2 and 3 prototypes". VentureBeat. https://venturebeat.com/arvr/facebook-teases-oculus-half-dome-2-and-3-prototypes. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Ben Lang (2025-07-18). "Meta Researchers Reveal Compact Ultra-wide Field-of-View VR & MR Headsets". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/meta-researchers-reveal-compact-ultra-wide-field-of-view-vr-mr-headsets/. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Amit Kumar Bhowmick, Afsoon Jamali, Douglas Bryant, Sandro Pintz, Philip J. Bos (2022). "Optical performance characterization of 5 cm aperture size continuous focus tunable liquid crystal lens for resolving Accommodation-Convergence mismatch conflict of AR/VR/3D HMDs". Meta Research. Kent State University and Meta Reality Labs. https://research.facebook.com/file/1099140820977271/Optical-performance-characterization-of-5-cm-aperture-size-continuous-focus-tunable-liquid-crystal-lens-for-resolving....pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  9. ↑ J. F. Algorri, V. Urruchi, J. M. Sánchez-Pena (2013-03). "An analytical approach to the design of liquid crystal microlenses". 40th Topical Meeting on Liquid Crystals, Paderborn (poster). Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. https://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/10016/29189/2/analytical_TMLC_2013.pdf. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Alexander F. Naumov, Mikhail Y. Loktev, Igor R. Guralnik, Gleb V. Vdovin (1998-07-01). "Liquid-crystal adaptive lenses with modal control". Optics Letters, vol. 23, no. 13. Optica Publishing Group. pp. 992-994. doi:10.1364/OL.23.000992. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.23.000992. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Afsoon Jamali, Doug Bryant, Yanli Zhang, Anders Grunnet-Jepsen, Achintya K. Bhowmik, Philip J. Bos (2018). "Design of a large aperture tunable refractive Fresnel liquid crystal lens". Applied Optics, vol. 57, no. 7. Optica Publishing Group. pp. B10. doi:10.1364/AO.57.000B10. https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.57.000B10. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Kun Yin, En-Lin Hsiang, Junyu Zou, Yannanqi Li, Zhiyong Yang, Qian Yang, Po-Cheng Lai, Chih-Lung Lin, Shin-Tson Wu (2022-05-30). "Advanced liquid crystal devices for augmented reality and virtual reality displays: principles and applications". Light: Science & Applications, vol. 11, article 161. Springer Nature. doi:10.1038/s41377-022-00851-3. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-022-00851-3. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Erez Hasman, Vladimir Kleiner, Gabriel Biener, Avi Niv (2003). "Polarization dependent focusing lens by use of quantized Pancharatnam-Berry phase diffractive optics". Applied Physics Letters, vol. 82, no. 3. pp. 328-330. doi:10.1063/1.1539300. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1539300. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Kun Gao, Hsien-Hui Cheng, Achintya K. Bhowmik, Philip J. Bos (2015-09-25). "Thin-film Pancharatnam lens with low f-number and high quality". Optics Express, vol. 23, no. 20. Optica Publishing Group. pp. 26086. doi:10.1364/OE.23.026086. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.23.026086. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Jihwan Kim, Yanming Li, Matthew N. Miskiewicz, Chulwoo Oh, Michael W. Kudenov, Michael J. Escuti (2015-11). "Fabrication of ideal geometric-phase holograms with arbitrary wavefronts". Optica, vol. 2, no. 11. Optica Publishing Group. pp. 958. doi:10.1364/OPTICA.2.000958. https://doi.org/10.1364/OPTICA.2.000958. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Catherine Clifford (2011-04-19). "Bye bifocals! New specs change focus". CNNMoney. CNN. https://money.cnn.com/2011/04/19/smallbusiness/pixeloptics_electronic_eyeglasses/index.htm. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Afsoon Jamali, Comrun Yousefzadeh, Colin P. McGinty, Doug Bryant, Philip J. Bos (2018-10-15). "LC lens systems to solve accommodation/convergence conflict in three-dimensional and virtual reality displays". Optical Engineering, vol. 57, no. 10. SPIE. doi:10.1117/1.OE.57.10.105101. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.OE.57.10.105101. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  18. ↑ Gordon D. Love, David M. Hoffman, Philip J. W. Hands, James Gao, Andrew K. Kirby, Martin S. Banks (2009-08-31). "High-speed switchable lens enables the development of a volumetric stereoscopic display". Optics Express, vol. 17, no. 18. pp. 15716-15725. doi:10.1364/OE.17.015716. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3056506/. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  19. ↑ Yun-Han Lee, Guanjun Tan, Kun Yin, Tao Zhan, Shin-Tson Wu (2018-02). "Compact see-through near-eye display with depth adaption". Journal of the Society for Information Display, vol. 26, no. 2. pp. 64-70. doi:10.1002/jsid.635. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsid.635. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  20. ↑ "Half Dome Updates: FRL Explores More Comfortable, Compact VR Prototypes for Work". Meta Blog. Meta. 2019-09-25. https://www.meta.com/blog/half-dome-updates-frl-explores-more-comfortable-compact-vr-prototypes-for-work/. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  21. ↑ Kris Holt (2019-09-25). "Oculus' latest concept headset has electronic varifocal lenses". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2019-09-25-oculus-concept-headset-electronic-varifocal-lenses-half-dome.html. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Ben Lang (2020-07-28). "Facebook Reality Labs Says Varifocal Optics Are "almost ready for primetime," Details HDR Research". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/facebook-reality-labs-lanman-spie-xr-2020-varifocal-hdr/. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  23. ↑ David Heaney (2020-07-28). "Facebook's Display Research Lead: Varifocal Half-Dome 3 'Almost Ready For Prime Time'". UploadVR. https://www.uploadvr.com/half-dome-3-prime-time/. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Ben Lang (2022-05-24). "Meta Research Explores a New Solution to One of VR's Biggest Display Challenges". Road to VR. https://www.roadtovr.com/meta-research-dynamic-focus-lc-lens-ar-vr/. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  25. ↑ Amit K. Bhowmick, Afsoon Jamali, Doug Bryant, Sandro Pintz, Philip J. Bos (2023-06). "Invited Paper: Tunable liquid crystal lens for dynamic Prescription (Rx) correction and Accommodation-Convergence (AC) conflict correction in AR/VR/3D HMDs". SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers, vol. 54, no. 1. Society for Information Display. pp. 1121-1124. doi:10.1002/sdtp.16769. https://doi.org/10.1002/sdtp.16769. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  26. ↑ Amit K. Bhowmick, Afsoon Jamali, Doug Bryant, Sandro Pintz, Philip J. Bos (2024-07-27). "Design, modeling, fabrication, and characterization of 50 mm diameter focus tunable liquid crystal lens with enhanced optical performance". Optical Engineering, vol. 63, no. 7. SPIE. doi:10.1117/1.OE.63.7.073104. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.OE.63.7.073104. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "The ZEISS Ventures portfolio is growing with the investment in Morrow". ZEISS. Carl Zeiss AG. 2022-07-13. https://www.zeiss.com/corporate/en/about-zeiss/present/newsroom/press-releases/2022/ven-invest.html. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 "DeepOptics and EssilorLuxottica Collaboration Reaches New Level With Kickstarter Campaign for Adaptive Focus Sunglass". 20/20 Magazine. 2021-07. https://www.2020mag.com/article/deepoptics-and-essilorluxottica-collaboration-reaches-new-level-with-kickstarter-campaign-for-adaptive-focus-sunglass. Retrieved 2026-10-11.
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