Haptics: Difference between revisions

In traditional [[video game]] controllers, "[[rumble]]" is often used to produce tactile feedback. However, modern [[haptic systems]] in AR and VR environments offer much more sophisticated and nuanced feedback mechanisms.

Human skin contains four main classes of [[mechanoreceptor]]s: Merkel cells (pressure), Meissner corpuscles (low-frequency vibration), Ruffini endings (skin stretch), and Pacinian corpuscles (high-frequency vibration). These receptors are tuned to different frequencies and deformations, allowing us to perceive a wide range of tactile sensations.<ref>Lederman, S. J., & Klatzky, R. L. (2009). Haptic perception: A tutorial. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 71(7), 1439-1459.</ref>  

Cutaneous cues (pressure, vibration, stretch) combine with [[kinesthetic sense|kinesthetic]] cues from muscles and joints to form a multimodal "haptic channel" that informs us about object properties and our interactions with the environment.<ref>Applied Sciences. (2024). Haptics is comprised of kinesthetic and cutaneous feedback. *Applied Sciences*. doi:10.3390/app14146020</ref>

The study of haptics has origins dating back to the 1950s when engineers began researching mechanical manipulators for handling hazardous materials.<ref>Hannaford, B., & Okamura, A. M. (2016). Haptics. In Springer handbook of robotics (pp. 1063-1084). Springer, Cham.</ref> The term "haptics" was first officially adopted into the field of [[human-computer interaction]] during the early 1990s.

The evolution of haptics in VR/AR contexts accelerated in the 2010s with the resurgence of consumer virtual reality technology. [[Oculus]] (later acquired by [[Facebook]]/[[Meta]]) began implementing haptic controllers with their [[Oculus Touch]] controllers in 2016, and [[HTC]] included similar capabilities in their [[Vive]] controllers.<ref>Burdea, G. C. (2019). Haptic feedback for virtual reality. Virtual reality and augmented reality, 17-30.</ref>

Haptic feedback can be broadly categorized based on the type of sensory information it provides:

[[Tactile feedback]] engages the mechanoreceptors in the skin to simulate sensations like pressure, vibration, stretch, texture, and temperature.<ref name="culbertson2018">Culbertson, H., Schorr, S. B., & Okamura, A. M. (2018). Haptics: The Technology of Touch. *Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems*, *1*, 385-409.</ref>

[[Vibrotactile feedback]] uses vibration to create tactile sensations and is the most common form of haptic feedback in consumer devices. It typically employs [[eccentric rotating mass]] (ERM) motors or [[linear resonant actuators]] (LRA).<ref>Choi, S., & Kuchenbecker, K. J. (2013). Vibrotactile display: Perception, technology, and applications. Proceedings of the IEEE, 101(9), 2093-2104.</ref>

Modern VR controllers like the [[Meta Quest 2]] controllers and [[Valve Index]] controllers use vibrotactile feedback to simulate interactions with virtual objects.<ref>Benko, H., Holz, C., Sinclair, M., & Ofek, E. (2016, October). Normaltouch and texturetouch: High-fidelity 3d haptic shape rendering on handheld virtual reality controllers. In Proceedings of the 29th Annual Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (pp. 717-728).</ref>

[[Electrotactile]] or [[electrocutaneous stimulation]] delivers small electrical currents to stimulate nerves in the skin, creating various tactile sensations. Companies like [[Teslasuit]] have incorporated this technology into full-body haptic suits for VR training and gaming.<ref>Kaczmarek, K. A., Webster, J. G., Bach-y-Rita, P., & Tompkins, W. J. (1991). Electrotactile and vibrotactile displays for sensory substitution systems. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 38(1), 1-16.</ref>

[[Thermal feedback]] systems use [[Peltier element]]s or similar technologies to create sensations of heat or cold. These can enhance immersion by simulating temperature changes in virtual environments.<ref>Wilson, G., Halvey, M., Brewster, S. A., & Hughes, S. A. (2011, May). Some like it hot: thermal feedback for mobile devices. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 2555-2564).</ref>

Creating the sensation of surface roughness or patterns often using high-frequency vibrations or electrostatics to simulate different textures when touching virtual surfaces.<ref name="culbertson2018"/>

[[Kinesthetic feedback]] provides information about limb position and movement by applying forces to the user's body, engaging muscles and joints. This simulates weight, inertia, resistance, and large-scale impacts.<ref name="culbertson2018"/>

[[Force feedback]] systems provide resistance or force to the user, simulating the physical properties of virtual objects. These can include:

Commercial examples include the [[PHANTOM]] haptic device (now part of [[3D Systems]]) and [[Haption's Virtuose]] systems, which have been used for medical training, industrial design, and scientific visualization.<ref>Laycock, S. D., & Day, A. M. (2003). Recent developments and applications of haptic devices. Computer Graphics Forum, 22(2), 117-132.</ref>

Using platforms or actuated chairs to simulate large-scale movements like vehicle acceleration, flight G-forces, or walking sensations. These systems are often used in training simulators and advanced entertainment applications.<ref>Salisbury, J. K., Conti, F., & Barbagli, F. (2004). Haptic rendering: introductory concepts. *IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications*, *24*(2), 24-32.</ref>

[[Ultrasonic haptics]] use focused ultrasound waves to create tactile sensations in mid-air without requiring users to wear or hold any devices. Companies like [[Ultraleap]] (formerly [[Ultrahaptics]]) have developed systems that allow users to "feel" virtual objects without physical contact.<ref>Carter, T., Seah, S. A., Long, B., Drinkwater, B., & Subramanian, S. (2013, October). UltraHaptics: multi-point mid-air haptic feedback for touch surfaces. In Proceedings of the 26th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology (pp. 505-514).</ref>

[[Pneumatic]] and [[hydraulic systems]] use air or fluid pressure to create force feedback. These can be used in gloves, suits, or other wearable devices to simulate touch and pressure.<ref>Burdea, G., Zhuang, J., Roskos, E., Silver, D., & Langrana, N. (1992, April). A portable dextrous master with force feedback. In Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium (pp. 55-62).</ref>

Systems using [[mechanical constraints]] physically limit user movement to simulate walls, surfaces, or object boundaries. Examples include the [[CLAW]] controller by Microsoft Research and [[EXIII]] haptic devices.<ref>Choi, I., Hawkes, E. W., Christensen, D. L., Ploch, C. J., & Follmer, S. (2016, October). Wolverine: A wearable haptic interface for grasping in virtual reality. In 2016 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (pp. 986-993).</ref>

{| class="wikitable"

! Actuator !! Principle !! Typical use

|}

1. Samples user motion

2. Computes contact forces using a physics engine

Research into [[multi-point haptic rendering]] addresses limitations of traditional single-point interfaces, allowing users to feel virtual objects with their entire hand or body.<ref>Prattichizzo, D., Chinello, F., Pacchierotti, C., & Malvezzi, M. (2013). Towards wearability in fingertip haptics: a 3-dof wearable device for cutaneous force feedback. IEEE Transactions on Haptics, 6(4), 506-516.</ref>

In the SIGGRAPH technology conference, Japanese scientists [[Tomohiro Amemiya]] and [[Hiroaki Gomi]] demonstrated two [[Force display]] devices: [[Traxion]] and [[Buru-Navi3]]. When held, these devices can cause push and pull sensations while vibrating in place. The force these devices generate is strong enough to guide a blind person.<ref>http://www.technologyreview.com/news/528886/could-force-illusions-help-wearables-catch-on/</ref>

[[Traxion]] is a similar device developed by [[Jun Rekimoto]]. The device also creates a virtual force by asymmetrically vibrating the actuator.

Standard [[VR controller]]s (e.g., Meta Quest controllers, Valve Index Controllers, PlayStation VR2 Sense controllers) typically include basic [[vibrotactile feedback]] (ERM or LRA). Some advanced controllers incorporate more nuanced effects, like the adaptive triggers and detailed haptics in the PS VR2 Sense controllers.<ref>Sony Interactive Entertainment. (n.d.). PlayStation VR2 Sense controller. Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://www.playstation.com/en-us/ps-vr2/controllers/</ref>

The [[PlayStation 5's DualSense]] controller represents one of the most advanced mainstream haptic controllers, using adaptive triggers and high-fidelity vibrotactile feedback to simulate different surfaces and resistances.

[[Haptic glove]]s aim to provide high-fidelity feedback to the hands and fingers. They often combine finger tracking with various feedback mechanisms:

* Vibrotactile arrays: Multiple small actuators across the palm and fingers for localized sensations

Examples include [[HaptX Gloves G1]] with micro-fluidic actuators for true-contact pressure, [[SenseGlove]], and [[Manus VR]].<ref>HaptX Inc. (n.d.). HaptX Gloves. Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://haptx.com/</ref>

[[Haptic suit]]s or vests extend tactile feedback to the torso and sometimes limbs. They typically use an array of vibrotactile actuators to simulate impacts, environmental effects (like rain or wind direction), or proximity alerts across the body. Examples include the [[bHaptics]] TactSuit range and [[TESLASUIT]], which integrates electrical muscle stimulation (EMS), motion capture, and biometry.<ref>bHaptics Inc. (n.d.). TactSuit. Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://www.bhaptics.com/</ref><ref>TESLASUIT. (n.d.). TESLASUIT XR Edition. Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://teslasuit.io/products/teslasuit-4/</ref>

[[Haptic gaming]] provides immersive experiences by allowing players to feel virtual environments and objects. Advanced systems like the [[Teslasuit]], [[bHaptics TactSuit]], and [[Dexmo]] exoskeleton gloves enable users to feel impacts, textures, and resistance in games.<ref>Pacchierotti, C., Sinclair, S., Solazzi, M., Frisoli, A., Hayward, V., & Prattichizzo, D. (2017). Wearable haptic systems for the fingertip and the hand: Taxonomy, review, and perspectives. IEEE transactions on haptics, 10(4), 580-600.</ref>

Next-gen consoles and XR headsets use localized haptics to convey weapon recoil, surface textures, and locomotion cues. Game-specific haptic tracks (e.g., *Astro Bot*, *Returnal*) significantly raise presence and immersion.<ref>Polygon. (2024, September). Astro Bot showcases DualSense haptics. *Polygon*.</ref>

[[Haptic medical simulators]] allow healthcare professionals to practice procedures without risk to real patients. Systems like [[3D Systems' Touch]] (formerly [[Sensable Phantom]]) and [[FundamentalVR's Fundamental Surgery]] provide force feedback for surgical training.<ref>Coles, T. R., Meglan, D., & John, N. W. (2011). The role of haptics in medical training simulators: A survey of the state of the art. IEEE Transactions on haptics, 4(1), 51-66.</ref>

Haptics improves psychomotor skill transfer in medical simulators, with systematic reviews showing enhanced accuracy and reduced task time in surgical training.<ref>JMIR. (2024). Haptic technology in healthcare: a systematic review. *JMIR*.</ref>

Haptics in VR and AR is transformative in education, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. It enables multi-sensory learning by integrating visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile feedback, essential for hands-on experiences.

For example, VR with haptics can simulate laboratory experiments, allowing students to feel and manipulate virtual scientific equipment. AR applications with haptic feedback facilitate interactive exploration of complex systems like anatomy or molecular structures, improving understanding and long-term retention.<ref>Computers & Education. (2023). Haptic feedback in VR education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. *Computers & Education*, *189*.</ref>

[[Haptic industrial training]] allows workers to practice complex or dangerous tasks in virtual environments before performing them in reality. Companies like [[EON Reality]] and [[Serious Labs]] develop haptic VR training solutions for industries like construction, manufacturing, and oil and gas.<ref>Wang, Z. R., Wang, P., Xing, L., Mei, L. P., Zhao, J., & Zhang, T. (2019). Haptic rendering for dental training system. IEEE Access, 7, 68275-68282.</ref>

[[Automotive design]] companies like [[BMW]] and [[Ford]] use haptic systems for virtual prototyping, allowing designers to "feel" car interiors and controls before physical prototypes are built.<ref>Bordegoni, M., Cugini, U., Caruso, G., & Polistina, S. (2009). Mixed prototyping for product assessment: a reference framework. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM), 3(3), 177-187.</ref>

[[Haptic accessibility devices]] help people with visual impairments navigate environments through tactile feedback. Systems like [[Wayband]] by [[WearWorks]] provide navigation assistance through patterns of vibration.<ref>Van Erp, J. B., Van Veen, H. A., Jansen, C., & Dobbins, T. (2005). Waypoint navigation with a vibrotactile waist belt. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception (TAP), 2(2), 106-117.</ref>

Combining haptic displays with VR/AR can create powerful accessibility tools, allowing alternative sensory channels to compensate for vision or hearing impairments.<ref>Financial Times. (2024, October 11). UCL synthetic touch technology could transform healthcare. *Financial Times*.</ref>

Combining haptic exoskeletons with VR accelerates stroke recovery by increasing engagement and repetitions. The gamification of rehabilitation exercises through VR with haptic feedback has shown significant improvements in patient motivation and outcomes.<ref>Annals of Medicine. (2023). Efficacy of VR-based rehabilitation in stroke. *Annals of Medicine*, *55*(2).</ref>

[[Haptic telepresence]] allows users to remotely "feel" environments through robotic systems. Applications include remote surgical systems, space exploration, and hazardous environment inspection.<ref>Pacchierotti, C., Meli, L., Chinello, F., Malvezzi, M., & Prattichizzo, D. (2015). Cutaneous haptic feedback to ensure the stability of robotic teleoperation systems. The International Journal of Robotics Research, 34(14), 1773-1787.</ref>

[[Haptic teleoperation]] enables precise control of robots in delicate or complex tasks by providing operators with tactile feedback from the robot's interactions.<ref>Son, H. I., Franchi, A., Chuang, L. L., Kim, J., Bulthoff, H. H., & Giordano, P. R. (2013). Human-centered design and evaluation of haptic cueing for teleoperation of multiple mobile robots. IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics, 43(2), 597-609.</ref>

* '''[[IEEE VR]]''' and '''[[SIGGRAPH]]''' host annual Haptics symposia where new devices debut.   

* '''[[OpenXR 1.1]]''' (Khronos) unifies API calls for amplitude-/frequency-controlled haptic output across headsets.

[[Haptic codecs]] like [[MPEG-V]] and [[MPEG-H]] include provisions for standardized haptic data, though adoption remains limited compared to audio and video standards.<ref>Eid, M., Orozco, M., & El Saddik, A. (2007, June). A guided tour in haptic audio visual environments and applications. In 2007 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (pp. 1449-1452). IEEE.</ref>

=== Miniaturization and Wearability ===

Research into [[microfluidic tactile displays]] and [[smart materials]] aims to create thinner, lighter haptic devices that can be comfortably worn for extended periods.<ref>Wang, D., Ohnishi, K., & Xu, W. (2020). Multimodal haptic display for virtual reality: A survey. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 67(1), 610-623.</ref>

[[Stretchable electronics]] and [[e-textiles]] are enabling the development of haptic systems integrated directly into clothing or applied to the skin like temporary tattoos.<ref>Yao, S., & Zhu, Y. (2015). Nanomaterial-enabled stretchable conductors: strategies, materials and devices. Advanced Materials, 27(9), 1480-1511.</ref>

[[Surface haptics]] research focuses on creating tactile sensations on touchscreens and flat surfaces. Technologies like [[electroadhesion]], [[ultrasonic friction modulation]], and [[microelectromechanical systems]] (MEMS) are enabling touchscreens that can simulate textures and buttons.<ref>Meyer, D. J., Peshkin, M. A., & Colgate, J. E. (2013, April). Fingertip friction modulation due to electrostatic attraction. In 2013 world haptics conference (WHC) (pp. 43-48). IEEE.</ref>

Companies like [[Tanvas]] and [[Bosch]] are developing commercial applications of surface haptics for automotive interfaces, mobile devices, and kiosks.<ref>Mullenbach, J., Shultz, C., Colgate, J. E., & Piper, A. M. (2014, April). Surface haptic interactions with a TPad tablet. In Proceedings of the adjunct publication of the 27th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology (pp. 7-8).</ref>

Research into [[direct neural stimulation]] aims to bypass mechanical interfaces entirely, potentially allowing users to feel virtual sensations through direct interaction with the nervous system.<ref>Tyler, D. J. (2016). Restoring the human touch: Prosthetics imbued with haptics give their wearers fine motor control and a sense of connection. IEEE Spectrum, 53(5), 28-33.</ref>

[[Haptic latency]] must be minimized and synchronized precisely with visual and auditory cues; delays can break immersion and cause discomfort. Current research focuses on reducing end-to-end latency in haptic systems to below perceptible thresholds.

Many advanced haptic technologies require significant power and can be expensive to produce, limiting their adoption in consumer devices. Research into energy-efficient actuators and more cost-effective manufacturing methods is ongoing.<ref>Virtual Reality. (2025). Is modularity the future of haptics in XR? A systematic literature review. *Virtual Reality*.</ref>

[[Full-body haptic systems]] aim to provide comprehensive tactile feedback across the entire body. Companies like [[Teslasuit]], [[bHaptics]], and [[Axon VR]] (now [[HaptX]]) are developing suits with hundreds of haptic actuators.<ref>Schorr, S. B., & Okamura, A. M. (2017). Three-dimensional skin deformation as force substitution: Wearable device design and performance during haptic exploration of virtual environments. IEEE transactions on haptics, 10(3), 418-430.</ref>

Research into [[distributed haptic interfaces]] seeks to optimize the placement and types of actuators to maximize feedback while minimizing cost and weight.<ref>Jones, L. A., & Sarter, N. B. (2008). Tactile displays: Guidance for their design and application. Human factors, 50(1), 90-111.</ref>

[[Environmental haptics]] extends beyond wearable devices to create haptic sensations through the physical environment. Technologies include [[acoustic radiation pressure]], [[mid-air ultrasonic arrays]], and [[room-scale haptics]].<ref>Iwamoto, T., Tatezono, M., & Shinoda, H. (2008, August). Non-contact method for producing tactile sensation using airborne ultrasound. In International Conference on Human Haptic Sensing and Touch Enabled Computer Applications (pp. 504-513). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.</ref>

[[Haptic projectors]] like those developed by [[Ultraleap]] allow multiple users to experience mid-air haptic sensations without wearable devices.<ref>Long, B., Seah, S. A., Carter, T., & Subramanian, S. (2014, April). Rendering volumetric haptic shapes in mid-air using ultrasound. In ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) (Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 1-10).</ref>

The development of [[haptic authoring tools]] aims to make haptic content creation more accessible to designers without specialized technical knowledge. Platforms like [[Unity's XR Interaction Toolkit]] and [[Unreal Engine's haptic plugins]] provide frameworks for implementing haptic feedback in VR/AR applications.<ref>Danieau, F., Fleureau, J., Guillotel, P., Mollet, N., Christie, M., & Lécuyer, A. (2014). HapSeat: producing motion sensation with multiple force-feedback devices embedded in a seat. In Proceedings of the 18th ACM symposium on Virtual reality software and technology (pp. 69-76).</ref>

[[Haptic recording]] technologies allow the capture of real-world tactile experiences for playback in virtual environments, similar to how audio and video are recorded.<ref>Kuchenbecker, K. J., Romano, J., & McMahan, W. (2011). Haptography: Capturing and recreating the rich feel of real surfaces. In Robotics research (pp. 245-260). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.</ref>

Research into [[cross-modal perception]] examines how haptic feedback interacts with visual and auditory cues, enabling more efficient and convincing multisensory experiences.<ref>Lederman, S. J., & Klatzky, R. L. (2009). Haptic perception: A tutorial. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 71(7), 1439-1459.</ref>

[[Context-aware haptics]] adjusts tactile feedback based on environmental factors, user state, and application context to provide more relevant and effective haptic experiences.<ref>MacLean, K. E. (2008). Haptic interaction design for everyday interfaces. Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 4(1), 149-194.</ref>

Recent research has produced breakthroughs like self-powered [[electrotactile glove]]s that use triboelectric textiles to generate their own stimulation current, eliminating the need for external power sources and reducing weight.<ref>Science Advances. (2025). Self-powered electrotactile textile haptic glove. *Science Advances*. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adt0318</ref>

* [[Force feedback]]

* [[Immersion (virtual reality)]]

* [[Sensory substitution]]

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[[Category:Feedback systems]]

[[Category:Haptics]]