Waveguide display: Difference between revisions - VR & AR Wiki - Virtual Reality & Augmented Reality Wiki

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* '''Out-coupler''': Gradually extracts light from the waveguide toward the user's eye while expanding the exit pupil

Total internal reflection occurs when light traveling in an optically denser medium (refractive index n₁) strikes the interface with a less dense medium (n₂) at an angle exceeding the critical angle θ<sub>c</sub> = sin⁻¹(n₂/n₁).<ref name="coherent">Coherent. "High Index Waveguides for AR." https://www.coherent.com/news/blog/ar-displays-high-index-material</ref> For typical glass-to-air interfaces with n=1.5, this critical angle is approximately 42°. Higher refractive index materials enable wider fields of view by allowing a broader range of propagation angles.

Total internal reflection occurs when light traveling in an optically denser medium (refractive index n₁) strikes the interface with a less dense medium (n₂) at an angle exceeding the critical angle θ<sub>c</sub> = sin⁻¹(n₂/n₁).<ref name="coherent">Coherent. "High Index Waveguides for AR." https://www.coherent.com/news/blog/ar-displays-high-index-material</ref> For typical glass-to-air interfaces with n=1.5, this critical angle is approximately 42°. Higher refractive index materials enable wider fields of view by allowing a broader range of propagation angles.<ref name="schott">SCHOTT. "Waveguides for augmented reality." https://www.schott.com/en-gb/expertise/applications/waveguides-for-augmented-reality</ref>

=== Exit Pupil Expansion ===

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3. Slicing the bonded stack at precise angles (tolerance <10 arcseconds)

4. Polishing to optical quality (surface roughness <1nm RMS)

Lumus announced their next-generation Z-Lens 2D architecture at CES 2023, promising improved field of view and efficiency.<ref name="prnewswire">PR Newswire. "Lumus Launches Next Generation 2D 'Z-Lens' Waveguide Architecture." https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/lumus-launches-z-lens-301713879.html</ref>

=== Holographic Waveguides ===

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* [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] acquired [[Akonia Holographics]] (2018)

* [[Google]] acquired [[North Inc.]] and its waveguide technology (2020)

* [[Vuzix]] announced large-format waveguide manufacturing capabilities (2024)<ref name="vuzix2">Vuzix. "Large Format Waveguide Manufacturing." https://www.vuzix.com/blogs/press-releases/large-format-waveguide</ref>

== Historical Development ==

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== References ==

~~<references>~~

<ref name="elight2023">Ding, Y., Yang, Q., Li, Y. et al. "Waveguide-based augmented reality displays: perspectives and challenges." eLight 3, 24 (2023). https://elight.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43593-023-00057-z</ref>

~~<ref name="nature2024">Xiong, J., Wu, S.T. "Waveguide-based augmented reality displays: a highlight." Light Sci Appl 13, 51 (2024). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41377-023-01371-4</ref>~~

~~<ref name="uploadvr">UploadVR. "Holographic Waveguides: What You Need To Know To Understand The Smartglasses Market." https://www.uploadvr.com/waveguides-smartglasses/</ref>~~

~~<ref name="wiseguy">WiseGuyReports. "AR Optical Waveguide Module Market: Trends & Opportunities 2035." https://www.wiseguyreports.com/reports/ar-optical-waveguide-module-market</ref>~~

~~<ref name="wiki_tir">Wikipedia. "Total internal reflection." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_internal_reflection</ref>~~

~~<ref name="coherent">Coherent. "High Index Waveguides for AR." https://www.coherent.com/news/blog/ar-displays-high-index-material</ref>~~

~~<ref name="linkedin">Wagner, D. "Why is making good AR displays so hard?" LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-making-good-ar-displays-so-hard-daniel-wagner</ref>~~

<ref name="optofidelity">OptoFidelity. "Comparing and contrasting different waveguide technologies." https://www.optofidelity.com/insights/blogs/comparing-and-contrasting-different-waveguide-technologies-diffractive-reflective-and-holographic-waveguides</ref>

<ref name="pmc2020">Liu, S. et al. "Analysis of the Imaging Characteristics of Holographic Waveguides Recorded in Photopolymers." Polymers 12(8), 1666 (2020). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7408443/</ref>

<ref name="nature2024pv">Wu, Y. et al. "Breaking the in-coupling efficiency limit in waveguide-based AR displays with polarization volume gratings." Light Sci Appl 13, 216 (2024). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41377-024-01537-8</ref>

~~<ref name="nature2025meta">Zhang, Z. et al. "An achromatic metasurface waveguide for augmented reality displays." Light Sci Appl 14, 27 (2025). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41377-025-01761-w</ref>~~

~~<ref name="lumus">Wikipedia. "Lumus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumus</ref>~~

~~<ref name="prnewswire">PR Newswire. "Lumus Launches Next Generation 2D 'Z-Lens' Waveguide Architecture." https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/lumus-launches-z-lens-301713879.html</ref>~~

~~<ref name="patent">Google Patents. "US10761330B2 - Rainbow reduction in waveguide displays." https://patents.google.com/patent/US10761330B2/en</ref>~~

<ref name="sic2025">Li, Y. et al. "SiC diffractive waveguides for augmented reality: single-layer, full-color, rainbow-artifact-free display." eLight 5, 1 (2025). https://elight.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43593-025-00100-1</ref>

<ref name="spie2020">SPIE. "Nanoimprint lithography for augmented reality waveguide manufacturing." Proc. SPIE 11310 (2020). https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/11310/2543692/</ref>

~~<ref name="schott">SCHOTT. "Waveguides for augmented reality." https://www.schott.com/en-gb/expertise/applications/waveguides-for-augmented-reality</ref>~~

<ref name="pmc2023">Gsaxner, C. et al. "Magic Leap 1 versus Microsoft HoloLens 2 for the Visualization of 3D Content." Sensors 23(5), 2673 (2023). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10054537/</ref>

~~<ref name="dispelix">Good News Finland. "Finland's Dispelix secures major order from US aerospace firm." https://www.goodnewsfinland.com/en/articles/dispelix-collins-ar/</ref>~~

~~<ref name="continental">Continental. "Cutting-Edge technology Powers Continental's AR Head-up Display." https://www.continental.com/en/press/press-releases/2018-10-10-waveguide-hud/</ref>~~

~~<ref name="dataintelo">DataIntelo. "AR Waveguide Combiner Market Research Report 2033." https://dataintelo.com/report/ar-waveguide-combiner-market</ref>~~

~~<ref name="siliconangle">SiliconANGLE. "Snap acquires AR optical parts maker WaveOptics for $500M+." https://siliconangle.com/2021/05/21/snap-waveoptics-acquisition/</ref>~~

~~<ref name="optics2021">Optics.org. "Waveguide display developer Dispelix raises $33M." https://optics.org/news/12/11/14</ref>~~

~~<ref name="vuzix">Vuzix. "Vuzix Revolutionizes Display Technology with Large Format Waveguide." https://www.vuzix.com/blogs/press-releases/large-format-waveguide</ref>~~

~~<ref name="nature2023holo">Shi, Z. et al. "Waveguide holography for 3D augmented reality glasses." Nature Communications 14, 8354 (2023). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-44032-1</ref>~~

~~<ref name="hololens">Microsoft. "HoloLens 2 Technical Specifications." https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/hololens/hololens2-hardware</ref>~~

~~<ref name="digilens">DigiLens. "Technology Overview." https://www.digilens.com/technology</ref>~~

~~</references>~~

[[Category:Display technology]]

[[Category:Augmented reality]]

[[Category:Optical devices]]

[[Category:Mixed reality]]

[[Category:Head-mounted displays]]

[[Category:Photonics]]

[[Category:Emerging technologies]]